Consumidores de frutos de Persea lingue (Lauraceae) en el sur de Chile y su efecto en la germinación de semillas

Frugivory is a common interaction mechanism between plants and animals in the temperate rainforest of southernSouth America. In this study, we examined primary dispersal and predation stages of Persea lingue (Ruiz et Pav.) Nees(Lauraceae), an endemic large-seeded tree of these forests. The main goal was to determine the identity of vertebrate seeddispersers of P. lingue, to distinguish legitimate seed dispersers, pulp consumers and seed predators, and their influenceon seed germination. In order to know which birds and small mammals were feeding P. lingue seeds, we observed 20P. lingue canopies, and live traps baited with P. lingue seeds were installed in fragment forests in south-central Chile.To determine whether birds could be legitimate dispersers of P. lingue, we collected regurgitated and fecal samples. Weexamined whether rodents removed the fruit pulp, the seeds, or the whole fruit. Additionally, we studied if seeds placedon the forest floor were removed by rodents. In a final experiment we conducted germination trials to establish whetherpulp removal (by birds, rodents, or artificially-removed) influenced germination rates. We found six bird species feedingon P. lingue seeds. None of them defecated intact seeds, but, Turdus falcklandii Quoy & Gaimard (Turdinae) and Xolmispyrope (Kittlitz) (Tyrannidae) regurgitated intact seeds. We captured five species of rodents in Sherman traps. Four of themleft intact seeds. We did not find any effect of the seed handling types (pulp consumption vs. seed regurgitation) in seedgermination rates. However, pulp removal was an important factor for germination success. We conclude that T. falcklandiiand X. pyrope are legitimate seed dispersers of P. lingue, since they swallow the whole fruit and regurgitate the intactseed. Abrothrix olivaceus (Waterhouse) (Cricetidae) and probably Oligoryzomys longicaudatus (Bennett) (Cricetidae) arepotential secondary dispersers of P. lingue seeds, as they prefer to eat the fruit pulp rather than the seeds.La dispersión de semillas por endozoocoría es uno de los principales mecanismos de interacción mutualista entre plantas yanimales en el bosque templado de Sudamérica. En este estudio indagamos acerca de los mecanismos de dispersión primariay estadios de depredación de semillas de Persea lingue (Ruiz et Pav.) Nees (Lauraceae), árbol endémico de estos bosques.El objetivo principal fue determinar la identidad de los vertebrados dispersores de semillas de P. lingue, distinguiendodispersores legítimos, de consumidores de pulpa y predadores de semillas, y determinar su efecto en la germinación. Serealizaron observaciones focales de la copa de adultos de P. lingue; además, se instalaron trampas Sherman cebadas confrutos de P. lingue en fragmentos de bosque en el valle central del centro-sur de Chile. Se colectaron muestras de fecasy semillas regurgitadas, se determinó cuáles especies de roedores consumieron la pulpa, las semillas o los frutos enterosen las trampas. Se examinó si hubo remoción de frutos y semillas desde el suelo. Se realizó un ensayo de germinaciónpara determinar si la forma de la remoción de la pulpa afecta las tasas de germinación. Registramos seis especies de avesconsumiendo frutos, ninguna defecó semillas, Turdus falcklandii Quoy & Gaimard (Turdinae) y Xolmis pyrope (Kittlitz)(Tyrannidae) regurgitaron semillas intactas. Capturamos cinco especies de roedores en las trampas, cuatro dejaron semillasintactas. No encontramos efecto del tipo de manipulación de las semillas en su germinación. La remoción de la pulpa fuedeterminante para el éxito de germinación. Concluimos que T. falcklandii y X. pyrope son dispersores legítimos de semillasde P. lingue. Abrothrix olivaceus (Waterhouse) (Cricetidae) y probablemente Oligoryzomys longicaudatus (Bennett)(Cricetidae) son potenciales dispersores secundarios, dada su marcada preferencia por la pulpa sobre las semillas

The amphibian‐killing fungus in a biodiversity hotspot: identifying and validating high‐risk areas and refugia

Abstract Amphibian chytridiomycosis, due to infection with the fungus Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis (Bd), has been associated with the alarming decline and extinction crisis of amphibians worldwide. It is essential for conservation management to identify regions with high or low suitability for Bd. We use a species distribution model to estimate the environmental suitability of Bd in the Chilean Winter Rainfall–Valdivian Forest biodiversity hotspot. Fourteen environmental variables were used as predictors in the statistical modeling (Maxent, generalized linear models, random forest) which also included 56 independent Bd+ localities. High‐risk areas (i.e., suitability above a defined threshold) were validated through prospective field surveys conducted in 2017. As results from Maxent, which only uses presence data, were the only results retained, refugia (i.e., suitability below a defined threshold) were validated with the Bd absences (N = 12) used in the GLM and RF modeling. Our results showed that (1) suitability for Bd increased with human footprint and with shorter distances to urban centers and water bodies and decreased with elevation; (2) climate was not a major factor shaping the current distribution of Bd; and (3) the model predicted high‐risk and refugia areas fairly well. Surveys of 24 new localities in high‐risk areas confirmed that 23 were Bd+; hence, these areas warrant consideration for long‐term Bd surveillance, population monitoring, and disease mitigation. In addition, five localities with apparent Bd absence were found in the predicted high‐risk areas. Our models showed that refugia can exist near high‐risk areas and Bd+ sites. Four localities with apparent Bd absence were located within the refugia predicted by the model. Preventing Bd transmission to such refugia is of paramount importance for persistence of Bd‐susceptible amphibian populations. The identification and validation through prospective field surveys of high‐risk areas and refugia are imperative to develop strategies to prevent further arrival and establishment of Bd and also, by identifying amphibian species or populations of conservation concern in such areas, will help to guide specific actions to reduce the biodiversity loss caused by chytridiomycosis