16 research outputs found
Single Stage Simultaneous Electrochemical Exfoliation and Functionalization of Graphene
Development
of applications for graphene are currently hampered
by its poor dispersion in common, low boiling point solvents. Covalent
functionalization is considered as one method for addressing this
challenge. To date, approaches have tended to focus upon producing
the graphene and functionalizing subsequently. Herein, we describe
simultaneous electrochemical exfoliation and functionalization of
graphite using diazonium salts at a single applied potential for the
first time. Such an approach is advantageous, compared to postfunctionalization
of premade graphene, as both functionalization and exfoliation occur
at the same time, meaning that monolayer or few-layer graphene can
be functionalized and stabilized <i>in situ</i> before they
aggregate. Furthermore, the N<sub>2</sub> generated during <i>in situ</i> diazonium reduction is found to aid the separation
of functionalized graphene sheets. The degree of graphene functionalization
was controlled by varying the concentration of the diazonium species
in the exfoliation solution. The formation of functionalized graphene
was confirmed using Raman spectroscopy, scanning electron microscopy,
transmission electron microscopy, atomic force microscopy, and X-ray
photoelectron spectroscopy. The functionalized graphene was soluble
in aqueous systems, and its solubility was 2 orders of magnitude higher
than the nonfunctionalized electrochemically exfoliated graphene sheets.
Moreover, the functionalization enhanced the charge storage capacity
when used as an electrode in supercapacitor devices with the specific
capacitance being highly dependent on the degree of graphene functionalization.
This simple method of <i>in situ</i> simultaneous exfoliation
and functionaliztion may aid the processing of graphene for various
applications
Mesoporous Vertical Co<sub>3</sub>O<sub>4</sub> Nanosheet Arrays on Nitrogen-Doped Graphene Foam with Enhanced Charge-Storage Performance
A hierarchical electrode structure,
consisting of cobalt oxide and nitrogen-doped graphene foam (NGF),
has been fabricated with the aim of achieving enhanced charge-storage
performance. Characterization of the material via electron microscopy
and Raman spectroscopy demonstrates that the Co<sub>3</sub>O<sub>4</sub> nanosheets grow vertically on NGF and the nanosheets are mesoporous
with pore diameters between 3 and 8 nm. The Co<sub>3</sub>O<sub>4</sub>/NGF electrode shows an enhanced charge-storage performance, attributed
to the 3D hierarchical structure and the synergistic effect of Co<sub>3</sub>O<sub>4</sub> and NGF. The present study shows that specific
capacitances as high as 451 F g<sup>–1</sup> can be obtained,
indicating that high-performance electrochemical capacitors can be
made using electrode materials with advanced structures. The present
electrode design can be readily extended to other electroactive materials
and their composites
Influence of Gas Phase Equilibria on the Chemical Vapor Deposition of Graphene
We have investigated the influence of gas phase chemistry on the chemical vapor deposition of graphene in a hot wall reactor. A new extended parameter space for graphene growth was defined through literature review and experimentation at low pressures (≥0.001 mbar). The deposited films were characterized by scanning electron microscopy, Raman spectroscopy, and dark field optical microscopy, with the latter showing promise as a rapid and nondestructive characterization technique for graphene films. The equilibrium gas compositions have been calculated across this parameter space. Correlations between the graphene films grown and prevalent species in the equilibrium gas phase revealed that deposition conditions associated with a high acetylene equilibrium concentration lead to good quality graphene deposition, and conditions that stabilize large hydrocarbon molecules in the gas phase result in films with multiple defects. The transition between lobed and hexagonal graphene islands was found to be linked to the concentration of the monatomic hydrogen radical, with low concentrations associated with hexagonal islands
Continuous Electrochemical Exfoliation of Micrometer-Sized Graphene Using Synergistic Ion Intercalations and Organic Solvents
A novel top-down electrochemical
method is demonstrated to prepare
gram quantities of few-layer graphene in a single-step, one-pot process.
Potential-controlled cathodic reduction is used to intercalate graphite
electrodes with alkali-substituted, ammonium- and dimethyl sulfoxide-solvated
cations. In situ decomposition of the intercalated compounds breaks
the π–π stacking of the graphene layers along the <i>c</i> axis of the graphite gallery, producing 1–20-μm-diameter
few-layer graphene sheets, without the need for defect-inducing oxidative
or sonication treatments. With a slight modification of the electrodes’
configuration, the process can run in a continuous manner, presenting
a potentially scalable approach for few-layer graphene production
Characterization of MoS<sub>2</sub>–Graphene Composites for High-Performance Coin Cell Supercapacitors
Two-dimensional
materials, such as graphene and molybdenum disulfide
(MoS<sub>2</sub>), can greatly increase the performance of electrochemical
energy storage devices because of the combination of high surface
area and electrical conductivity. Here, we have investigated the performance
of solution exfoliated MoS<sub>2</sub> thin flexible membranes as
supercapacitor electrodes in a symmetrical coin cell arrangement using
an aqueous electrolyte (Na<sub>2</sub>SO<sub>4</sub>). By adding highly
conductive graphene to form nanocomposite membranes, it was possible
to increase the specific capacitance by reducing the resistivity of
the electrode and altering the morphology of the membrane. With continued
charge/discharge cycles the performance of the membranes was found
to increase significantly (up to 800%), because of partial re-exfoliation
of the layered material with continued ion intercalation, as well
as increasing the specific capacitance through intercalation pseudocapacitance.
These results demonstrate a simple and scalable application of layered
2D materials toward electrochemical energy storage
Investigation of the Differential Capacitance of Highly Ordered Pyrolytic Graphite as a Model Material of Graphene
A study
of the differences among the capacitances of freshly exfoliated
highly ordered pyrolytic graphite (HOPG, sample denoted FEG), HOPG
aged in air (denoted AAG), and HOPG aged in an inert atmosphere (hereafter
IAG) is presented in this work. The FEG is found to be more hydrophilic
than AAG and IAG because the aqueous electrolyte contact angle (CA)
increases from 61.7° to 72.5° and 81.8° after aging
in Ar and air, respectively. Electrochemical impedance spectroscopy
shows the FEG has an intrinsic capacitance (6.0 μF cm<sup>–2</sup> at the potential of minimum capacitance) higher than those of AAG
(4.3 μF cm<sup>–2</sup>) and IAG (4.7 μF cm<sup>–2</sup>). The observed changes in the electrochemical response
are correlated with spectroscopic characterization (Raman spectroscopy
and X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy), which show that the surface
of HOPG was doped or contaminated after exposure to air. Taken together,
these changes upon atmospheric exposure are attributed to oxygen molecule,
moisture, and airborne organic contaminations: high-vacuum annealing
was applied for the removal of the adsorbed contaminants. It was found
that annealing the aged sample at 500 °C leads to partial removal
of the contaminants, as gauged by the recovery of the measured capacitance.
To the best of our knowledge, this is first study of the effect of
the airborne contaminants on the capacitance of carbon-based materials
Controlling the Thermoelectric Behavior of La-Doped SrTiO<sub>3</sub> through Processing and Addition of Graphene Oxide
The addition of graphene has been reported as a potential
route
to enhance the thermoelectric performance of SrTiO3. However,
the interplay between processing parameters and graphene addition
complicates understanding this enhancement. Herein, we examine the
effects of processing parameters and graphene addition on the thermoelectric
performance of La-doped SrTiO3 (LSTO). Briefly, two types
of graphene oxide (GO) at different oxidation degrees were used, while
the LSTO pellets were densified under two conditions with different
reducing strengths (with/without using oxygen-scavenging carbon powder
bed muffling). Raman imaging of the LSTO green body and sintered pellets
suggests that the added GO sacrificially reacts with the lattice oxygen,
which creates more oxygen vacancies and improves electrical conductivity
regardless of the processing conditions. The addition of mildly oxidized
electrochemical GO (EGO) yields better performance than the conventional
heavily oxidized chemical GO (CGO). Moreover, we found that muffling
the green body with an oxygen-scavenging carbon powder bed during
sintering is vital to achieving a single-crystal-like temperature
dependence of electrical conductivity, implying that a highly reducing
environment is critical for eliminating the grain boundary barriers.
Combining 1.0 wt % EGO addition with a highly reducing environment
leads to the highest electrical conductivity of 2395 S cm–1 and power factor of 2525μW m–1 K–2 at 300 K, with an improved average zT value across
the operating temperature range of 300–867 K. STEM-EELS maps
of the optimized sample show a pronounced depletion of Sr and evident
deficiency of O and La at the grain boundary region. Theoretical modeling
using a two-phase model implies that the addition of GO can effectively
improve carrier mobility in the grain boundary phase. This work provides
guidance for the development of high-performance thermoelectric ceramic
oxides
Optimizing the Reinforcement of Polymer-Based Nanocomposites by Graphene
The stress transfer between the internal layers of multilayer graphene within polymer-based nanocomposites has been investigated from the stress-induced shifts of the 2D Raman band. This has been undertaken through the study of the deformation of an ideal composite system where the graphene flakes were placed upon the surface of a polymer beam and then coated with an epoxy polymer. It is found that the rate of band shift per unit strain for a monolayer graphene flake is virtually independent of whether it has one or two polymer interfaces (<i>i</i>.<i>e</i>., with or without an epoxy top coating). In contrast, the rate of band shift is lower for an uncoated bilayer specimen than a coated one, indicating relatively poor stress transfer between the graphene layers. Mapping of the strain in the coated bilayer regions has shown that there is strain continuity between adjacent monolayer and bilayer regions, indicating that they give rise to similar levels of reinforcement. Strain-induced Raman band shifts have also been evaluated for separate flakes of graphene with different numbers of layers, and it is found that the band shift rate tends to decrease with an increase in the number of layers, indicating poor stress transfer between the inner graphene layers. This behavior has been modeled in terms of the efficiency of stress transfer between the inner graphene layers. Taking into account the packing geometry of polymer-based graphene nanocomposites and the need to accommodate the polymer coils, these findings enable the optimum number of graphene layers for the best reinforcement to be determined. It is demonstrated that, in general, multilayer graphene will give rise to higher levels of reinforcement than monolayer material, with the optimum number of layers depending upon the separation of the graphene flakes in the nanocomposite
Supercapacitor Electrodes from the in Situ Reaction between Two-Dimensional Sheets of Black Phosphorus and Graphene Oxide
Two-dimensional materials
show considerable promise as high surface area electrodes for energy-storage
applications such as supercapacitors. A single sheet of graphene possesses
a large specific surface area because of its atomically thin thickness.
However, to package this area efficiently in a device, it must be
confined within a finite three-dimensional volume without restacking
of the sheet faces. Herein, we present a method of maintaining the
high surface area through the use of a hybrid thin film in which few-layer-exfoliated
black phosphorus (BP) reduces graphene oxide (GO) flakes. When the
film is exposed to moisture, a redox reaction between the BP and the
GO forms an interpenetrating network of reduced GO (RGO) and a liquid
electrolyte of intermediate phosphorus acids H<sub><i>x</i></sub>PO<sub><i>y</i></sub>. The presence of the liquid
H<sub><i>x</i></sub>PO<sub><i>y</i></sub> electrolyte
in the RGO/H<sub><i>x</i></sub>PO<sub><i>y</i></sub> film stabilizes and preserves an open-channel structure enabling
rapid ion diffusion, leading to an excellent charging rate capability
(up to 500 mV s<sup>–1</sup> and retaining 62.3% of initial
capacitance at a large current density of 50 A g<sup>–1</sup>) when used as electrodes in supercapacitors
Two-Step Electrochemical Intercalation and Oxidation of Graphite for the Mass Production of Graphene Oxide
Conventional chemical
oxidation routes for the production of graphene
oxide (GO), such as the Hummers’ method, suffer from environmental
and safety issues due to their use of hazardous and explosive chemicals.
These issues are addressed by electrochemical oxidation methods, but
such approaches typically have a low yield due to inhomogeneous oxidation.
Herein we report a two-step electrochemical intercalation and oxidation
approach to produce GO on the large laboratory scale (tens of grams)
comprising (1) forming a stage 1 graphite intercalation compound (GIC)
in concentrated sulfuric acid and (2) oxidizing and exfoliating the
stage 1 GIC in an aqueous solution of 0.1 M ammonium sulfate. This
two-step approach leads to GO with a high yield (>70 wt %), good
quality
(>90%, monolayer), and reasonable oxygen content (17.7 at. %).
Moreover,
the as-produced GO can be subsequently deeply reduced (3.2 at. % oxygen;
C/O ratio 30.2) to yield highly conductive (54 600 S m<sup>–1</sup>) reduced GO. Electrochemical capacitors based on
the reduced GO showed an ultrahigh rate capability of up to 10 V s<sup>–1</sup> due to this high conductivity