The series spectra of the stripped boron atom (BIII)

In a preceding article [1], we have brought forward evidence that in "hot spark" spectra the strongest lines generally correspond to atoms from which the valence electrons have all been stripped off, so that the resulting spectrum is hydrogen-like, i.e., is due to one single electron moving between the series of levels characteristic of a simple nucleus-electron system. For such a nucleus-electron system the Bohr theory in its elementary form [2] which dealt only with circular orbits, i.e., with variations in azimuthal quantum numbers, the radial being always zero, yielded at once the result that the energies corresponding to a given quantum state, e.g., quantum number 1, increased in the ratio 1, 4, 9, 16, etc., as the nuclear charged increased in the ratio 1, 2, 3, 4, etc. This meant physically that the frequencies corresponding to jumps from infinity to an orbit of given quantum number, technically called term-values, when divided by the square of the nuclear charge should come out a constant; otherwise stated that the constant term in the Rydberg formula should become N, 4N, 9N, 16N

Series spectra of two-valence-electron atoms of boron (BII) and carbon (CIII)

Series spectra of BII and CIII.—By methods previously reported in the identification of lines in the extreme ultraviolet, 13 lines in addition to the pp′ group of BII have been identified, completing the classification of all lines known to be due to BII. Taking the 4f level as 27800 (probably correct to within 200 frequency units), the following term values were obtained for BII: 3s, 72930.8; 4s, 36655.5; 2p1, 165343.9; 2p2,3, 165362.7; 3p1, 59006.5; 3p2,3, 59010.0; 3d, 52054.2; 4d, 28640.4; 5f, 17795.7; 2S, 194325.9; 3S, 66665.1; 2P, 120929.4; 3D, 48410.3. In the case of CIII, 8 lines in addition to the pp′ group were identified, and taking the 4f level as 62600, the following term values were obtained for CIII: 3s, 146197.2; 2p, 331939.2; 3p1, 124685.8; 3p2, 124698.6; 3p3, 124704.1; 3d, 114387.2; 2S, 375463.1; 2P, 273111.0. Progression of frequency separations and of screening constants for regular doublets for Li to O is shown in Table VI, for one to six valence electrons. The separation (2p2-2p1) or (2p3-2p1) regularly decreases and the constant s regularly increases, for a given element, with the number of valence electrons, irrespective of the fact that both doublets and triplets are involved

High frequency rays of cosmic origin I. Sounding balloon observations at extreme altitudes

Discharge rate of an electroscope at altitudes from 5 to 15.5 km.—Four specially designed instruments, each comprising a recording electroscope, thermometer and barometer and each weighing but 190 gr were sent up with sounding balloons from Kelly Field, Texas. Three were recovered and of these two had satisfactory records of their flight during which they reached altitudes of 11.2 and 15.5 km, respectively. A comparison of the recorded electroscope reading at the 5 km level during ascent with the reading at the same level during descent shows that the average discharge rate of the electroscopes while above the 5 km level was about three times their discharge rates at the surface of the earth, and corresponded to an average rate of production of ions of 46.2 ions per cc per sec. This is only 25 percent of the value to be expected from the observations of Hess and of Kolhörster and constitutes definite proof that there exists no penetrating radiation of cosmic origin having an absorption coefficient as large as 0.57 per meter of water

The extension of the X-ray-doublet laws into the field of optics

Application of relativity formulas for x-ray doublets to ultra-violet spectra.— Evidence has been presented which indicates that many of the strongest lines in hot spark spectra are due to atoms stripped of all valence electrons excepting the one which in jumping between energy levels emits the radiation. For the L doublets due to atoms with but one L electron, Li(+), Be(2+), B(3+), C(4+), it is found that the frequency difference varies with atomic number Z in accordance with the relativity formula for x-ray doublets Δν=K(Z-s)4, the constant K being.365 for the regular L series, and the screening constant s decreasing from 2.02 for Li(+) to 1.86 for C(4+). Other L doublets are attributed to atoms stripped of all but three L electrons, the same formula holding but giving values of s about 20 per cent greater. In the case of triplets, the frequency differences of the widest pairs give values of s for atoms stripped of all but two or four L electrons which agree well with values for only one, three or five L electrons, though tending to be somewhat greater. Similarly from M doublets and triplets (K=.108) of C and N, values of s were obtained for atoms with from one to three L electrons slightly greater than from the corresponding L lines. In the case of atoms with only one M electron, the values of s decrease from 7.45 for Na(+) to 5.74 for P(5+), corresponding values of s from N, O and P series of doublets being slightly larger; for atoms with only two M electrons (widest pair of triplets) and with only three M electrons (doublets) the values of s vary up to about 9. For doublets corresponding to outer transitions 3d2-3d1, 4d2-4d1 and 4f2-4f1 the values of s come out close to 10. In the case of irregular L and M doublets corresponding to transitions from the 2s and 3s levels, the law for corresponding x-ray doublets also holds, the differences (sqrt[νs]-sqrt[νp]) increasing regularly and not very greatly with Z. All these facts are shown to agree well with what should be expected according to the Bohr-Sommerfeld theory; and the values of s give quantitatively the influence upon the effective nuclear charge of the addition of electrons in the valence shells. New series terms. The above relations enable the value of s for a given series for a given ionized atom to be predicted, and led to the discovery of an L doublet at λ1240 due to N(5+), and to the assignment of the following L doublets: λ990 to N(3+), λ1493 and 1744 to N(+), λ789 and λ658 to O(4+), and λ922 to O(2+). These results give us a new method of predicting spectra and of determining the state of ionization of atoms emitting certain lines. Doublet frequency differences in extreme ultra-violet for 2p2-2p1 terms due to B(3+) and C(4+) were measured by use of a special grating giving up to ten orders

The series spectra of the stripped atoms of phosphorus (PV), sulphur (SVI), and chlorine (ClVII)

Spectra of stripped atoms, sodium to chlorine.—Grating spectrograms of order three to eight have been obtained of the hot-spark spectra of these elements, which have yielded more accurate values for the (3p2-3p1), (3s-3p2) and (3p1-3d) terms of AlIII, SiIV, PV and SVI, and have enabled the identification and determination within about 5 frequency units (1) of 18 series lines of PV, and thence of the 14 most important term values (3s to 6f′′), (2) of 11 series lines of SVI, and 10 corresponding term values (3s to 5f′), and (3) of the first doublet of the principal series of ClVII at 800.70 and 813.00 A. The position of this doublet was first predicted by use of the method developed in a previous paper(1), based on observed regularities in these spectra. Further evidence is presented for the fact that both the regular and the irregular doublet laws of x-ray spectra, hold also throughout the field of optics. A plot of sqrt[ν/R] for the stripped atom levels as a function of atomic number gives approximately straight lines (Moseley law), those for the 3s, 3p and 3d terms and for the 4s, 4p, 4d and 4f terms being approximately parallel (irregular doublet law). The doublet separations d1d2, however, do not fit well into the relativity doublet law, the ratio of observed to theoretical values decreasing from about .8 for SVI to less than .2 for SiIV, while AlIII and MgII are anomalous, d1 having a greater frequency than d2. The general similarity of the spectra of all these elements is strikingly shown in spectrograms on which appear the "D" doublet of Na and the corresponding "D" doublets of the stripped atoms of Mg, Al, Si, P, S, and Cl in the second, third, fourth, fifth, sixth and seventh ordelrs, respectively, all near 5600 A, that for Na being farthest from the mean position. The frequencies of all the known terms found for the stripped atoms of Na to S, are collected in a table. Ionization potentials of PV and SiVI, computed from the 3s levels of PV and SVI, come out 64.7 and 87.6 volts

Nanostructured Al2O3/Graphene Additive in Bio-Based Lubricant: A Novel Approach to Improve Engine Performance

Personal and industrial use of internal combustion engines (ICEs) is projected to continue until 2050 and beyond. Yet demands to reduce global dependence on petrochemicals and fossil fuel-derived lubricants are increasing and environmentally necessary. New strategies for maintaining and enhancing ICE performance by reducing friction, wear, fuel consumption, and exhaust emissions will reduce the depletion of mineral and fossil fuel reserves and environmental pollution. This paper reports the tribological enhancement of nano-bio lubricants formulated using 2D nanocomposites of Al2O3/graphene as novel additives in coconut oil, whose performance as a lubricant compares favourably with the mineral-based engine oil 15W40. Structural, compositional, and morphological characterization of an Al2O3/graphene nanocomposite synthesized via thermal annealing revealed an ultra-fine particle size (<10 nm) with spherical/laminar morphology and a rich sp2 domain, exhibiting a consistent colloidal stability when formulated as nanofluid. Through the use of various characterisation techniques, including friction and wear analysis we gained valuable insight into the tribological mechanism. Our optimisation of 2D tribological system using coconut oil formulation resulted significant reductions in the coefficient of friction (28%), specific fuel consumption (8%), and exhaust pollutants (CO, SO2, and NOx) emissions. This work demonstrates the benefits of using nano-bio lubricant formulated using coconut oil and 2D based hybrids as base stock and additives, delivering solutions to global challenges such as improving fuel consumption while reducing environmental pollution; solutions that can be transferred to other areas where lubricants are a necessity

New evidence as to the nature of the incoming cosmic rays, their absorbability in the atmosphere, and the secondary character of the penetrating rays found in such abundance at sea level and below

The intensity of latitude-sensitive cosmic rays as would be measured by an electroscope placed just outside the atmosphere has been calculated. The ionization due to incoming electrons of 10 billion electron volts energy in this same electroscope placed 1/20th of an atmosphere beneath the top is found to be 13 times that outside. Electrons do not become penetrating by virtue of high energies even up to 17 billion electron volts. Neither protons nor other penetrating particles of any sort enter the atmosphere in significant numbers from outside the atmosphere. The observed penetrating particles and all other cosmic-ray effects, latitude-sensitive and non-latitude-sensitive, found in the lower atmosphere are practically all secondary effects—splashes from the absorption of electrons, or photons, or both taking place in the outer layers of the atmosphere

A very high altitude survey of the effect of latitude upon cosmic-ray intensities - and an attempt at a general interpretation of cosmic-ray phenomena

The results of a very high altitude geographical survey extending in airplanes from Northern Canada to Peru, to altitudes of 22,000 feet, and, in three stratosphere flights made within the United States, to altitudes of 60,000 feet, are interpreted in the light of (1) the Epstein and the Lemaitre-Vallarta analysis of the effect of the earth's magnetic field, and (2) the Bowen-Millikan proof that the immediate agents responsible for the ionization of the atmosphere are electrons (+ and -), rather than protons or heavier nuclei. The main conclusions reached are: (1) that the resistance of the atmosphere to incoming electrons is 1 billion volts because of extranuclear encounters, 5 billion volts because of nuclear encounters; (2) that nuclear electron encounters produce only very soft secondaries, both photons and electrons; (3) that incoming photons produce most of the ionization found at sea-level or at sub-sea-level depths; (4) that nearly all of the non-field sensitive part of the ionization of the atmosphere above sea-level is due to photons of energy 200±170 million electron volts; (5) that in the equatorial belt a small part of the ionization is due to incoming secondary electrons of energies as high as 10 billion volts; (6) that these are responsible for the east-west effect and the longitude effect found in the equatorial belt; (7) that the field sensitive part of the ionization increases rapidly with increasing latitude in going from Panama to Spokane because incoming secondaries of energies decreasing from 8 billion to 2 billion volts get through the blocking effect of the field in rapidly increasing numbers with increasing latitude and add greatly in northern latitudes to the underlying ionization of the upper-air produced by the incoming photons; (8) that the only source now in sight of the observed cosmic-ray energies is matter-annihilation; (9) that the softest components of the cosmic rays have the energies corresponding to the partial annihilation or atom building hypothesis, while the hardest components have energies corresponding to the complete atom-annihilation hypothesis; (10) that these processes may conceivably be taking place (1) because of the very low temperatures that facilitate the clustering of hydrogen in interstellar space, or (2) because of such extreme temperature conditions of the opposite sort as are found in novae, as suggested by Zwicky

Series spectra of boron, carbon, nitrogen, oxygen, and fluorine

Practically all of the unidentified strong lines of boron, carbon, nitrogen, oxygen, and fluorine occurring in the extreme ultra-violet spectra of the vacuum spark have been classified as due to jumps between levels in BI, CI, CII, NII, NIII, OII, OIII, OIV, FI, FII, FIII, and FIV. The levels thus found are correlated with those demanded by the Russell-Heisenberg-Pauli-Hund theory

The spectra of chlorine, Cl III, Cl IV and Cl V

About 200 additional lines have been classified in Cl III. 21 of these are intercombination lines. This analysis fixes most of the doublet and quartet terms arising from the addition of a 4s, 5s, 4p, 3d or 4d electron to either the 3P or 1D state of the core. Approximately 50 new lines have been classified in Cl IV and 20 in Cl V