Human responses to disasters: a pilot study on peritraumatic emotional and cognitive processing

This research article presents the qualitative development and cross-cultural pilot testing of a new instrument measuring emotional and cognitive processing during disasters. The instrument was developed according to a theoretical framework based on narratives from survivors of different types of disaster across Europe. Peritraumatic emotions and cognitions were assessed at three different stages of a disaster. The pilot study consisted of 311 participants responding to the questionnaire using scenario versions of disasters as well as 25 survivors working through the questionnaire using their experiences of real disasters. Both types of analysis were performed across seven countries. Differences in emotions and cognitions during the course of a disaster were displayed. Also, gender, the type of scenario participants were allocated to, and professional experience of emergencies led to differences in item response. As there was little difference between survivors’ and scenario participants’ responses, the use of a scenario in order to test pilot forms of questionnaires for purposive samples with certain characteristics such as limited sizes or access can be supported. For future research, the instrument should be field tested. It is envisaged it will be beneficial for a cross-cultural understanding of the influence of peritraumatic emotions and cognitions not only on posttraumatic psychological outcomes but also on related behavioural responses displayed during disasters

Pedestrians’ perceived vulnerability and observed behaviours relating to crossing and passing interactions with autonomous vehicles

Researchers have predicted that “vulnerable road users” (VRUs) such as pedestrians will feel less vulnerable and thus take more risks around autonomous vehicles (AVs) than around human-operated vehicles (HOVs). However, data on the behaviours pedestrians are likely to display during passing as well as crossing interactions with AVs – particularly from naturalistic studies – are currently lacking. Such data could help inform AV system designers and authorities, as well as researchers. So, a novel study was conducted in London, UK. Perceived vulnerability was gauged via a survey on hypothetical pedestrian-vehicle interactions (N = 267). Behaviours were observed during real crossing and passing interactions with AV shuttle pods in a shared space (N = 330). While pedestrians were the main focus, joggers and cyclists were also frequenting the observation site and were included in the analysis of passing interactions. The survey results showed that pedestrians were not perceived to be less vulnerable around AVs. Diminishing initial boldness in the crossing interactions, and high yielding in the passing interactions, supported this, demonstrating that VRUs were not taking undue risks; rather, they appeared to be experiencing some uncertainty and discomfort. Further results showed other VRU behaviours (gap acceptance, inattention, hesitation, changes in speed, explicit communication, a side preference) may be relevant in AV interactions, but not necessarily to the same degree as when around HOVs or not in line with UK road rules. Positive conclusions were drawn for AV programming, and for safety, at least in the short term, but concerns regarding mobility need addressing

Predictors of postevent distress and growth among firefighters after work-related emergencies — A cross-national study

Firefighters may experience posttraumatic stress symptomatology (i.e. post-event distress) as a consequence of exposure to work-related distressing incidents. However, positive psychological changes (i.e. post-event growth) should also be taken into account. The aim of this cross-national study was to investigate both post-event distress and growth in firefighters following distressing incidents. A sample of 1916 firefighters from eight predominantly European countries recalled a work-related distressing incident. Two hierarchical regression analyses were run to reveal predictors of post-event distress and growth, respectively. Predictors included person pre-event characteristics, objective (e.g. type of incident, time since incident, fatalities) and subjective (e.g. perceived life-threat, peri-event distress, most distressing aspect) incident features, and the participant’s country. Post-event distress was measured by the Impact of Event Scale-Revised (IES-R) and growth by the Posttraumatic Growth Inventory-Short Form (PTGI-SF). The final models explained 29% of the variation in post-event distress and 26% in growth. Post-event distress and growth were predicted by different variables. Country differences were found after controlling for all other variables. Further research is needed to explain these differences

Posttraumatic reactions among firefighters after critical incidents: cross-national data

The presence of posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) symptoms and posttraumatic growth (PTG) following a critical incident were examined among firefighters from eight predominantly European countries. A sample of 1916 firefighters completed the Impact of Event Scale–Revised (IES–R) and the Posttraumatic Growth Inventory–Short Form (PTGI–SF) with reference to a critical incident they had experienced. Analyses indicated both negative and positive posttraumatic outcomes could derive from experiencing critical incidents in the line of duty. The analyses also showed country differences exist regarding firefighters’ PTSD symptoms and PTG. It is recommended that future researchers examine factors that could evoke such national differences

A review of the literature on human behaviour in dwelling fires

Most fire-related injuries and fatalities in the UK, and other parts of the world, continue to occur during fires in the home – incidents where it is acknowledged that human factors play a contributing role. Yet the field of fire safety lacks an up-to-date review of the literature on human behaviour during fires in domestic spaces. Given there is now a growing body of work looking at human behaviour in dwelling fires, a review of the literature in this area is timely. Drawing from published studies, this paper sets out what is currently known about human behaviour in dwelling fires and highlights the differences that appear to exist between these spaces and what is known and accepted about human behaviour in public, commercial and industrial spaces. This paper then goes on to consider the nature of “fire risk”, arguing that much of the work in this area continues to conflate, or fails to recognise the existence of, different types of risk profiles, instead considering fire risk as a single type of risk, based mainly on factors related to fatalities. However, research findings point towards fire risk as at least three separate forms: the risk of a fire occurring, the risk of fire injury and the risk of fire fatality. By drawing together the literature on human behaviour in dwelling fires this paper argues that those who survive dwelling fires cannot be considered as “near miss fatalities”, but instead must be treated as a separate and distinct group

Relationships between firefighters’ post-event distress and growth at different times after distressing incidents

As a consequence of exposure to distressing work-related incidents, firefighters may experience negative symptomatic responses, that is, postevent distress. As well as negative outcomes, empirical studies have documented the experience of growth, that is, positive psychological changes, among first responders after encountering distressing work-related incidents. Postevent distress and growth may evolve independently at different times following a distressing event yet are likely to influence each other. In the present study the impact of distressing work-related incidents on firefighters was investigated, examining the relationship (linear, quadratic, and cubic) between postevent distress and growth. To see what this relationship looked like in the immediate and in the more distant aftermath of distressing incidents, participants were split into 2 groups: those with more recent exposure (i.e., their distressing incident occurred within the past 12 months) and those with more distant exposure (i.e., their distressing incident occurred 13–24 months ago). A sample of 927 firefighters from 8 predominantly European countries completed the Impact of Event Scale–Revised and the Posttraumatic Growth Inventory–Short Form with reference to an incident they perceived to be most stressful. Time since this incident occurred was not significantly associated with growth, but was negatively associated with postevent distress. The relationship between postevent distress and growth at different times was first explored using the loess statistical method. Subsequent multivariate regression analyses produced evidence of both linear and curvilinear relationships between postevent distress and growth. Nevertheless, the cubic model appeared to be the best fit of the data for recent distressing incidents and the quadratic model for more distant distressing incidents. The regression results were consistent with the results of the loess smoothing. Implications for clinical practice are discussed

From data to difference – considering the application of a large-scale database of human behaviour in accidental dwelling fires

This paper outlines six newly developed insight themes designed as a tool to engage the United Kingdom Fire and Rescue Service (FRS) in a discussion about the importance of human behaviour in accidental dwelling fires (ADFs), a subject that has received limited attention compared to the study of human behaviour in other environments. Central to a wider research programme focussing on the public's perspective of an ADF is an important project, named LIFEBID (Lessons in Fire & Evacuation Behaviour in Dwellings). LIFEBID will create the world's first large-scale database of human behaviour in ADFs. The LIFEBID database will generate new data comprising hundreds (and potentially) thousands of survey responses from members of the public who have directly experienced an ADF. The insight themes provide a means to engage with FRS stakeholders about the relevance of the work for them. Within this paper the insight themes consider the importance of this subject for the UK FRS, which is a key stakeholder, both in the research development and the application of its findings. The insight themes allow logical presentation of emerging and potential applications in a format that is easily understood

Recollection of flame height and smoke volume in domestic fires

When a domestic fire occurs, how well do people perceive and recall the fire hazards they encounter? Although much research has been conducted on threat or risk perception and memory for threatening stimuli, to the authors' knowledge no studies have systematically tested how well people perceive and recall the threat stimulus in a fire context. This is an important topic given that domestic fires are usually the main source of fire-related injuries and deaths, and human behaviour is believed to play a significant role in such outcomes. Moreover, eyewitness testimonies play a significant role in subsequent fire, insurance and coroner investigations. The current study – part of wider research on human behaviour in domestic fires, called LIFEBID – sought to address the gap in knowledge by conducting an online experiment testing participants' (a) memories for the size of the flames and smoke witnessed in a mock kitchen fire, and (b) reported willingness to engage with the fire hazards. Participants' behaviours and attitudes in relation to other risky activities and control over events were also measured. The results revealed that accurate recollections of flame height and smoke volume can be obtained from members of the public, in certain cases. Accuracy was negatively impacted when the flames and smoke witnessed were larger in size. The size of the fire hazards also had an impact on participants' willingness to engage with the hazards, moderating the number who stated that they could have successfully extinguished the flames or would have entered the room with the smoke. Although there were signs that many participants recognised the risks posed by the larger hazards, a not inconsiderable number were still willing to engage with them. Being someone who takes greater risks in a health/safety domain and believing in one's ability to control what happens to oneself did not explain this finding. There is a clear need for a deeper investigation into people’s perceptions of fire hazards in a domestic fire context and their associated behaviours and fire outcomes

Island vulnerability and resilience to wildfires: A case study of Corsica

The number of wildfires occurring globally is exacerbated by urbanisation and changes in weather patterns. In response, researchers have conducted studies of wildfires and human behaviour in regions such as Australia and the USA. Regions in Europe have received less attention, despite facing the same issues. Even more overlooked are one particular type of territory: islands. With their climates, islands across the Mediterranean remain attractive second home and tourist destinations, resulting in urban development. Yet due to certain features (e.g. cultural, socio-political, geographical), the ways in which their people deal with wildfires may differ somewhat from that in some mainland territories. This paper explores human behaviour in wildfire emergencies in the context of island vulnerability and resilience in Europe, with the Mediterranean island of Corsica as a case study. Qualitative analysis of semi-structured interviews (n = 8) with Corsican professionals involved in wildfire management and quantitative analysis of around 100 surveys from civilians was conducted. This analysis revealed that Corsica’s population approach to wildfire safety is shaped by available information as well as a strong risk culture, which stands in contrast with new/temporary residents moving into the island each summer season. The results drawn from the analysed sample suggest potential social vulnerability in wildfires when a decision to evacuate the population is taken by emergency managers as the most effective emergency response. Population behaviour were not influenced by property attachment, perceived risk, hazard knowledge, community closeness and locus of control, suggesting that island WUI resident characteristics may not be generalised from human behaviour in wildfires studies carried out in the USA or Australia