Complexity Reduction of Polymorphic Sequences (CRoPS™): A Novel Approach for Large-Scale Polymorphism Discovery in Complex Genomes

Application of single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) is revolutionizing human bio-medical research. However, discovery of polymorphisms in low polymorphic species is still a challenging and costly endeavor, despite widespread availability of Sanger sequencing technology. We present CRoPS™ as a novel approach for polymorphism discovery by combining the power of reproducible genome complexity reduction of AFLP® with Genome Sequencer (GS) 20/GS FLX next-generation sequencing technology. With CRoPS, hundreds-of-thousands of sequence reads derived from complexity-reduced genome sequences of two or more samples are processed and mined for SNPs using a fully-automated bioinformatics pipeline. We show that over 75% of putative maize SNPs discovered using CRoPS are successfully converted to SNPWave® assays, confirming them to be true SNPs derived from unique (single-copy) genome sequences. By using CRoPS, polymorphism discovery will become affordable in organisms with high levels of repetitive DNA in the genome and/or low levels of polymorphism in the (breeding) germplasm without the need for prior sequence information

High-Throughput Detection of Induced Mutations and Natural Variation Using KeyPoint™ Technology

Reverse genetics approaches rely on the detection of sequence alterations in target genes to identify allelic variants among mutant or natural populations. Current (pre-) screening methods such as TILLING and EcoTILLING are based on the detection of single base mismatches in heteroduplexes using endonucleases such as CEL 1. However, there are drawbacks in the use of endonucleases due to their relatively poor cleavage efficiency and exonuclease activity. Moreover, pre-screening methods do not reveal information about the nature of sequence changes and their possible impact on gene function. We present KeyPoint™ technology, a high-throughput mutation/polymorphism discovery technique based on massive parallel sequencing of target genes amplified from mutant or natural populations. KeyPoint combines multi-dimensional pooling of large numbers of individual DNA samples and the use of sample identification tags (“sample barcoding”) with next-generation sequencing technology. We show the power of KeyPoint by identifying two mutants in the tomato eIF4E gene based on screening more than 3000 M2 families in a single GS FLX sequencing run, and discovery of six haplotypes of tomato eIF4E gene by re-sequencing three amplicons in a subset of 92 tomato lines from the EU-SOL core collection. We propose KeyPoint technology as a broadly applicable amplicon sequencing approach to screen mutant populations or germplasm collections for identification of (novel) allelic variation in a high-throughput fashion

Sequence-Based Genotyping for Marker Discovery and Co-Dominant Scoring in Germplasm and Populations

Conventional marker-based genotyping platforms are widely available, but not without their limitations. In this context, we developed Sequence-Based Genotyping (SBG), a technology for simultaneous marker discovery and co-dominant scoring, using next-generation sequencing. SBG offers users several advantages including a generic sample preparation method, a highly robust genome complexity reduction strategy to facilitate de novo marker discovery across entire genomes, and a uniform bioinformatics workflow strategy to achieve genotyping goals tailored to individual species, regardless of the availability of a reference sequence. The most distinguishing features of this technology are the ability to genotype any population structure, regardless whether parental data is included, and the ability to co-dominantly score SNP markers segregating in populations. To demonstrate the capabilities of SBG, we performed marker discovery and genotyping in Arabidopsis thaliana and lettuce, two plant species of diverse genetic complexity and backgrounds. Initially we obtained 1,409 SNPs for arabidopsis, and 5,583 SNPs for lettuce. Further filtering of the SNP dataset produced over 1,000 high quality SNP markers for each species. We obtained a genotyping rate of 201.2 genotypes/SNP and 58.3 genotypes/SNP for arabidopsis (n = 222 samples) and lettuce (n = 87 samples), respectively. Linkage mapping using these SNPs resulted in stable map configurations. We have therefore shown that the SBG approach presented provides users with the utmost flexibility in garnering high quality markers that can be directly used for genotyping and downstream applications. Until advances and costs will allow for routine whole-genome sequencing of populations, we expect that sequence-based genotyping technologies such as SBG will be essential for genotyping of model and non-model genomes alike

SNPSelect: A scalable and flexible targeted sequence-based genotyping solution.

In plant breeding the use of molecular markers has resulted in tremendous improvement of the speed with which new crop varieties are introduced into the market. Single Nucleotide Polymorphism (SNP) genotyping is routinely used for association studies, Linkage Disequilibrium (LD) and Quantitative Trait Locus (QTL) mapping studies, marker-assisted backcrosses and validation of large numbers of novel SNPs. Here we present the KeyGene SNPSelect technology, a scalable and flexible multiplexed, targeted sequence-based, genotyping solution. The multiplex composition of SNPSelect assays can be easily changed between experiments by adding or removing loci, demonstrating their content flexibility. To demonstrate this versatility, we first designed a 1,056-plex maize assay and genotyped a total of 374 samples originating from an F2 and a Recombinant Inbred Line (RIL) population and a maize germplasm collection. Next, subsets of the most informative SNP loci were assembled in 384-plex and 768-plex assays for further genotyping. Indeed, selection of the most informative SNPs allows cost-efficient yet highly informative genotyping in a custom-made fashion, with average call rates between 88.1% (1,056-plex assay) and 99.4% (384-plex assay), and average reproducibility rates between duplicate samples ranging from 98.2% (1056-plex assay) to 99.9% (384-plex assay). The SNPSelect workflow can be completed from a DNA sample to a genotype dataset in less than three days. We propose SNPSelect as an attractive and competitive genotyping solution to meet the targeted genotyping needs in fields such as plant breeding

SNPWave(TM): a flexible multiplexed SNP genotyping technology

Scalable multiplexed amplification technologies are needed for cost-effective large-scale genotyping of genetic markers such as single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs). We present SNPWave(TM), a novel SNP genotyping technology to detect various subsets of sequences in a flexible fashion in a fixed detection format. SNPWave is based on highly multiplexed ligation, followed by amplification of up to 20 ligated probes in a single PCR. Depending on the multiplexing level of the ligation reaction, the latter employs selective amplification using the amplified fragment length polymorphism (AFLP®) technology. Detection of SNPWave reaction products is based on size separation on a sequencing instrument with multiple fluorescence labels and short run times. The SNPWave technique is illustrated by a 100-plex genotyping assay for Arabidopsis, a 40-plex assay for tomato and a 10-plex assay for Caenorhabditis elegans, detected on the MegaBACE 1000 capillary sequencer

Bioinformatics analysis workflow for SBG.

<p>The Illumina data are first processed to remove low quality reads. The reference sequences are generated by clustering the unique reads present within the dataset. The reads are subsequently aligned to the reference sequences and variation called using the GATK Unified Genotyper. Lastly, the final set of SNPs and genotypes are generated by removing SNPs not meeting the threshold for percentage of missing data and expected genotypic frequencies.</p

Overview of SBG.

<p>(A) The sequencing complexity of genomic DNA is reduced using a combination of rare and frequent cutting enzymes. (B) Sequencing adapters containing sample identification tags are ligated to the restriction fragments to construct SBG libraries. SBG libraries are amplified and sequenced using Illumina sequencing platforms. Only read 1 will be sequenced for single-end sequencing, while both read 1 and read 2 will be sequenced for paired-end sequencing. (C) SNPs are mined between the samples and simultaneously genotyped using the SBG bioinformatics analysis workflow.</p

Variant calling for the arabidopsis and lettuce sequence datasets.

<p>Variant calling for the arabidopsis and lettuce sequence datasets.</p

Parent-based SNP genotyping in the arabidopsis and lettuce sequence datasets after removing SNPs displaying extreme genotypic frequencies and an excessive number of missing genotypes.

<p>Parent-based SNP genotyping in the arabidopsis and lettuce sequence datasets after removing SNPs displaying extreme genotypic frequencies and an excessive number of missing genotypes.</p