Implementation of the Wavelet Transformation for Image Compression System

Image compression can be used to reduce the size of the image before transmission it. The compressed image retains many of the original image’s features but requires less bandwidth. This paper proposes to show how to compress and uncompress a true-color image. The goal of the true compression is to minimize the length of the sequence of bits needed to represent the image, while preserving information of acceptable quality. Wavelet contributes to effective solutions for this problem. The complete chain of compression includes phases of quantization, coding and decoding in addition of the wavelet processing itself. A synthesis performance of the compression is given by the compression ratio and the Bit-Per-Pixel ratio which are equivalent. The challenge of compression methods is to find the best compromise between a weak compression ratio and a good perceptual result. The work presented in this paper involved developing an image compression system based on the wavelet transforming using Set Partitioning In Hierarchical Trees (SPIHT) coding in the MATLAB environment

Associations between socioeconomic status and adherence to hypertension treatment among older adults in urban and rural areas in Myanmar: a cross-sectional study using baseline data from the JAGES in Myanmar prospective cohort study

Objectives This study aims to investigate whether there is a differential association between socioeconomic status (SES) and adherence to hypertension medication among older adults in rural and urban areas in Myanmar and assess what type of SES is associated with a difference.Design Cross-sectional study using baseline data from the Japan Gerontological Evaluation Study in Myanmar prospective cohort study. A multistage random sampling method was applied in each region.Setting An urban and a rural area in Myanmar.Participants A total of 1200 older adults over 60 years old in Myanmar were randomly selected in 2018 (600 each from rural and urban areas). Of them, 573 had hypertension and were eligible for the analysis (urban: 317, rural: 256).Outcome Adherence to hypertension medication (yes/no) is the outcome of interest. Three types of SES (wealth, education and current employment status) were the independent variables.Results We found that 21.5% of urban residents and 48.4% of rural residents were non-adherent in the study population. Poisson regression modelling stratified by area was performed to estimate the prevalence ratios (PRs) of not following treatment instructions. Demographic information and complications of hypertension were adjusted for in all models as possible confounders. In terms of SES, middle level of wealth compared with low level was significantly associated with poor adherence (PR 2.68, 95% CI 1.28 to 5.59) in the urban area, but education and employment status did not show similar associations. Lower education compared with middle/high school or higher was significantly associated with poor adherence in the rural area (no school: PR 3.22, 1.37–7.58; monastic: 3.42, 1.16–5.07; primary school: 2.41, 1.18–4.95), but wealth and income did not show similar associations.Conclusions SES and adherence to hypertension medication were differently associated among older adults in rural and urban areas in Myanmar. To ensure healthcare access to hypertension treatment for every citizen, the differential association between SES and adherence in urban/rural areas needs to be recognised

Unmet needs for hypertension diagnosis among older adults in Myanmar: secondary analysis of a multistage sampling study

Abstract Background Hypertension is a major cause of morbidity among older adults. We investigated older adults’ access to health services in Myanmar by focusing on unmet needs in diagnosing hypertension. This study aims to identify factors associated with the unmet needs for hypertension diagnosis in the study areas of Myanmar. Methods This is a secondary data analysis of the survey which is a cross-sectional study conducted with older adults (aged ≥ 60 years) in the Yangon and Bago regions of Myanmar. Objective indicators of health were collected, including blood pressure, height and weight. The diagnosis of hypertension was considered an unmet need when a participant’s blood pressure measurement met the diagnostic criteria for hypertension but the disease had not yet been diagnosed. Bivariate and multivariate analyses using logistic regression were performed to identify factors associated with the unmet need for hypertension diagnosis. Factors related to lifestyle habits and medical-seeking behaviour were selected and put into the multivariate model. Results Data from 1200 people, 600 from each of the two regions, were analysed. Altogether 483 (40.3%) participants were male, 530 (44.2%) were aged ≥ 70 years, and 857 were diagnosed with hypertension based on their measured blood pressure or diagnostic history, or both, which is a 71.4% prevalence of hypertension. Moreover, 240 (20.0%) participants had never been diagnosed with hypertension. In the multivariate analysis, these unmet needs for hypertension diagnosis were significantly associated with male sex (odds ratio [OR] 1.46, 95% confidence interval [CI] 1.05–2.05), residence in the Bago region (OR 1.64, 95% CI 1.09–2.45) and better self-rated health (OR 1.70, 95% CI 1.24–2.33), but not with education, category on the wealth index or living arrangement. Conclusions There are barriers to accessing health services for hypertension diagnosis, as evidenced by the regional disparities found in this study, and charitable clinics may decrease the financial barrier to this diagnosis

Association between Happiness and Economic Status among Older Adults in Two Myanmar Regions

Few studies have examined whether objective or subjective economic status (ES) has a greater association with the happiness of older adults, despite concerns regarding the growing economic cost of morbidity and their functional dependence in developing countries with aging populations. Thus, this study examined whether objective/subjective ES was associated with happiness in older adults in two Myanmar regions. A multistage random sampling procedure and face-to-face interviews were conducted in the urban and rural areas of Myanmar. The happiness of 1200 participants aged >60 years was evaluated using a single happiness score ranging from 0 (very unhappy) to 10 (very happy). The wealth index, used as an objective ES, was calculated from 17 household asset items, such as radio, washing machines, and television. Subjective ES was assessed by asking “Which of the following best describes your current financial situation in light of general economic conditions?” Responses ranged from “very difficult” to “very comfortable”. Both low objective and subjective ES were negatively associated with happiness, after adjusting for confounding variables and stratification by region (urban and rural areas). Although objective and subjective ES had similar associations with happiness in urban areas, subjective ES had a stronger association in rural areas

Association between depressive symptoms and objective/subjective socioeconomic status among older adults of two regions in Myanmar.

Low objective socioeconomic status (SES) has been correlated with poor physical and mental health among older adults. Some studies suggest that subjective SES is also important for ensuring sound physical and mental health among older adults. However, few studies have been conducted on the impact of both objective and subjective SES on mental health among older adults. This study examines whether objective or subjective SES is associated with depressive symptoms in older adults in Myanmar. This cross-sectional study, conducted between September and December, 2018, used a multistage sampling method to recruit participants from two regions of Myanmar, for face-to-face interviews. The Geriatric Depression Scale (GDS) was used to evaluate the depressive symptoms. Participants were classified as having no depressive symptom (GDS score <5) and having depressive symptoms (GDS score ≥5). Objective and subjective SES were assessed using the wealth index and asking participants a multiple-choice question about their current financial situation, respectively. The relationship between objective/subjective SES and depressive symptoms was examined using a multivariable logistic regression analysis. The mean age of the 1,186 participants aged 60 years and above was 69.7 (SD: 7.3), and 706 (59.5%) were female. Among them, 265 (22.3%) had depressive symptoms. After adjusting for objective SES and other covariates, only low subjective SES was positively associated with depressive symptoms (adjusted odds ratio, AOR: 4.18, 95% confidence interval, CI: 2.98-5.87). This association was stronger among participants in the rural areas (urban areas, AOR: 2.10, 95% CI: 1.08-4.05; rural areas, AOR: 5.65, 95% CI: 3.69-8.64). Subjective SES has a stronger association with depressive symptoms than objective SES, among older adults of the two regions in Myanmar, especially in the rural areas. Interventions for depression in older adults should consider regional differences in the context of subjective SES by reducing socioeconomic disparities among the communities

Rural–Urban Differences in the Factors Affecting Depressive Symptoms among Older Adults of Two Regions in Myanmar

The aim of the study was to investigate rural–urban differences in depressive symptoms in terms of the risk factors among older adults of two regions in Myanmar to provide appropriate intervention for depression depending on local characteristics. This cross-sectional study, conducted between September and December, 2018, used a multistage sampling method to recruit participants from the two regions, for face-to-face interviews. Depressive symptoms were assessed using the 15-item version of the Geriatric Depression Scale (GDS). Depressive symptoms were positively associated with living in rural areas (B = 0.42; 95% confidence interval (CI): 0.12,0.72), female (B = 0.55; 95% CI: 0.31,0.79), illness during the preceding year (B = 0.68; 95% CI: 0.45,0.91) and non-Buddhist religion (B = 0.57; 95% CI: 0.001,1.15) and protectively associated with education to middle school level or higher (B = −0.61; 95% CI: −0.94, −0.28) and the frequency of visits to religious facilities (B = −0.20; 95% CI: −0.30, −0.10). In women in urban areas, depressive symptoms were positively associated with illness during the preceding year (B = 0.78; 95% CI: 0.36, 1.20) and protectively associated with education to middle school level or higher (B = −0.67; 95% CI: −1.23, −0.11), middle or high wealth index (B = −0.92; 95% CI: −1.59, −0.25) and the frequency of visits to religious facilities (B = −0.20; 95% CI: −0.38, −0.03). In men in rural areas, illness during the preceding year was positively associated with depressive symptoms (B = 0.87; 95% CI: 0.33, 1.42). In women in rural areas, depressive symptoms were positively associated with illness during the preceding year (B = 0.83; 95% CI: 0.36, 1.30) and protectively associated with primary education (B = −0.62; 95% CI: −1.12, −0.12) and the frequency of visits to religious facilities (B = −0.44; 95% CI: −0.68, −0.21). Religion and wealth could have different levels of association with depression between older adults in the urban and rural areas and men and women. Interventions for depression in older adults should consider regional and gender differences in the roles of religion and wealth in Myanmar