Promoting urban light rail transit in a compact city context: the case of Toyama City, Japan

Cities worldwide have introduced or revived light rail transit (LRT) to develop compact city strategies and help address environmental issues, such as increasing CO2 emissions or air pollution. Toyama is such a city that has addressed these issues by establishing a compact city rooted in transportation policies, notably the LRT established in 2006. Although there appears to be a consensus that the LRT contributes to establishing a compact city, contributing factors to ridership remain unclear. This study attempts to identify these factors, using the norm-activation model and theory of planned behaviour as a theoretical grounding, questionnaires for a data collection method and structural equation modelling for data analysis. The findings suggest that attitudes, perceived behavioural control and behavioural norms are significantly associated with the intention to use the LRT, which is, along with age, associated with its actual use. Based on these findings, this study provides theoretical and practical insights for cities wanting to pursue establishing or developing an LRT system.</p

Equilibrium Frequency of Endosymbionts in Multiple Infections Based on the Balance between Vertical Transmission and Cytoplasmic Incompatibility - Figure 2

<p>(A) Phase portrait where , and . When the initial value of is less than the unstable equilibrium (open circle), decreases toward zero (extinction of endosymbionts). Otherwise, moves to a nonzero stable equilibrium point (closed circle on the right side). (B–D) Vector fields where with and , 0.24, and 0.20, respectively. The horizontal and vertical axes represents and , respectively. Each arrow represents the difference in and between a generation, . The color of an arrow indicates the magnitude of the vector. Solid and open circles indicate stable and unstable equilibrium points. The shaded areas depict the basin of attraction for the extinction of endosymbionts. (E–G) Vector fields where with and , 0.50 and 0.25, respectively. Each arrow represents the difference of and between a generation, .</p

Comparison of in the numerical (colored points) and analytical (black curves) solutions where , 2, 5 and 10.

<p>The parameters used in the simulations were selected from the ranges of and . The convergence condition was . The analytically derived equilibria are shown by a solid line for (), a dash-dotted line for [<a href="http://www.plosone.org/article/info:doi/10.1371/journal.pone.0094900#pone.0094900.e168" target="_blank">Eq.(7)</a>], and dotted lines for and [<a href="http://www.plosone.org/article/info:doi/10.1371/journal.pone.0094900#pone.0094900.e203" target="_blank">Eq.(10)</a>].</p

Comparison between the analytic equilibria for and 2, and the reported data.

<p>The solid and dashed lines represent the analytic estimates for and 2, respectively. The closed circles and an open square indicate each single infection and double infection dataset, respectively. The values of and , and the references are shown in table S1.</p

Schematic showing bacterial infection flows, where .

<p>The host population comprises a set of triple infections, three sets of double infections, three sets of single infections and a noninfection set. The arrows represent vertical transmission failure. All sets can exist in the population (enclosed by the solid line) only when . By contrast, when , there are no stable states where the frequencies of more than one set of double infection has a positve value (enclosed by the dashed line). In that case, the host population eventually approaches a stable state that include two bacterial strains (encolosed by the dotted-dashed line). The proof was presented in <a href="http://www.plosone.org/article/info:doi/10.1371/journal.pone.0094900#pone.0094900-Frank1" target="_blank">[18]</a>.</p

Visualization 1: Magnetic resonance imaging appropriate for construction of subject-specific head models for diffuse optical tomography

Comparison of subject-specific head models Originally published in Biomedical Optics Express on 01 September 2015 (boe-6-9-3197

Media 1: The influence of frontal sinus in brain activation measurements by near-infrared spectroscopy analyzed by realistic head models

Originally published in Biomedical Optics Express on 01 September 2012 (boe-3-9-2121

Scatter plots of dopamine synthesis capacity versus mean diffusivity in posterior caudate and posterior and whole putamen.

<p>Scatter plots of dopamine synthesis capacity versus mean diffusivity in posterior caudate and posterior and whole putamen.</p

Average and standard error of mean of dopamine synthesis capacity, fractional anisotropy and mean diffusivity in striatal subregions.

<p>ACN: Anterior caudate nucleus, PCN: posterior caudate nucleus, NA: nucleus accumbens, APT: anterior putamen, PPT: posterior putamen, R: dopamine synthesis capacity, FA: fractional anisotropy, MD: Mean Diffusivity (×10⁻³ mm²/s).</p

Subregional differences in dopamine synthesis capacity, fractional anisotropy and mean diffusivity in the striatum evaluated by Friedman's test (α = 0.05).

<p>The cross (x) represents statistically significant difference between two regions. Error bar shows standard error of means.</p