Cd, Hg, Pb, and As in European species of wild growing forest landscape fungi : a review

Kadmij (Cd), živo srebro (Hg), svinec (Pb) in arzen (As) so kovine, ki se naravno ali kot posledica človekove dejavnosti pojavljajo v okolju, tudi v gozdni krajini, kjer so rastišča številnih evropskih vrst gliv. Namen članka je bil pripraviti pregled vrst in količin izbranih kovin v trosnjakih gliv terprimerjati lastne raziskave, opravljene v različno onesnaženih območjih v Sloveniji (Zgornja Mežiška, Šaleška in Poljanska dolina), s podatki evropskih raziskav. Vsebnosti kovin v trosnjakih gliv iz neonesnaženih območij pravilomanajdemo v naslednjih intervalih: <0,5 mg/kg suhe teže (Cd), < 0,5 mg/kg do 10 mg/kg suhe teže (Hg), < 0,5 mg/kg do 5 mg/kg suhe teže (Pb) in < 0,5 mg/kg do 1 (2) mg/kg suhe teže (As). Na podlagi pregleda vsebnosti izbranih kovin v trosnjakih gliv ugotavljamo, da sta problematični kovini predvsem Cd in Hg. Omenjeni kovini lahko dosegata velike vsebnosti celo v glivah, ki rastejo v neonesnaženih območjih. Za vse analizirane kovin je značilno, da v trosnjakih gliv iz močno onesnaženih območji dosegajo velike, celo ekstemne vsebnosti, ki nekajkrat prekoračujejo vsebnosti iz neonesnaženih območij. Upoštevaje primerjavo z evropskimi raziskavami ugotavljamo, da je Zgornja Mežiška dolina obremenjena s Pb in Cd, Šaleška dolina pa s Cd in As.Metals, which originate from anthropogenic and natural activities, frequently occur in forest landscape with habitats of many European species of wild growing fungi. The presented review focuses on cadmium (Cd), mercury (Hg), lead (Pb), and arsenic (As) levels in fruiting bodies of wild growing European species of fungi of forest landscape. Furthermore, a comparison with studies of this kind performed in Slovenia was made with the aim to assess themetals levels in fungi from differently polluted areas in Slovenia (the Upper Meža Valley, the Šalek Valley, the Poljana Valley). The usual reported levels for most species grown in unpolluted areas are in the following ranges:Cd: < 0,5 mg/kg - 5 mg/kg dry weight (dw), Hg: < 0,5 mg/kg - 10 mg/kg dw, Pb: < 0,5 mg/kg - 5 mg/kg dw, As: < 0,5 mg/kg -1 (2) mg/kg dw (As), respectively. The presented data reveal that cadmium (Cd) and mercury (Hg) have probably been the most detrimental trace elements in fruiting bodies, which can reach increased levels even in unpolluted areas. It is evident for all analyzed trace elements that values can considerably increase in fungi picked in severely polluted areas. According to data regarding Slovene studies and comparison with other European studies, it is obvious that the Šalek Valley is enriched with Cd and As, while the Upper Meža Valley is considerably polluted with Pb and Cd

Primers used in PCR and sequencing.

<p>*: M = A,C; W = A,T; K = G,T; R = A,G; S = C,G; Y = C,T.</p><p>^a: 1st PCR.</p><p>^b: nested PCR.</p><p>Primers used in PCR and sequencing.</p

Phylogenetic relationships between the <i>Rickettsia</i> spp. genes based on sequence comparison of the <i>gltA</i> gene 341-bp fragment.

<p>The phylogenetic branches showed support of >70% by bootstrap analysis. Identified sequences are in bold type. The bar indicates the percentage of sequence divergence.</p

Tick population, host species, and PCR detection rates of the rickettsial genes.

<p>*Number of animal in parenthesis, U: unknown.</p><p>**M: male, F: female, N: nymph, U: unknown.</p><p>Tick population, host species, and PCR detection rates of the rickettsial genes.</p

Phylogenetic relationships between the <i>Rickettsia</i> spp. genes based on sequence comparison of the <i>ompA</i> gene 488-bp fragment.

<p>The phylogenetic branches showed supported of >70% by bootstrap analysis. Identified sequences are in bold type. The bar indicates the percentage of sequence divergence.</p

Detection of <i>Rickettsia</i> and <i>Ehrlichia</i> spp. in Ticks Associated with Exotic Reptiles and Amphibians Imported into Japan

<div><p>One of the major routes of transmission of rickettsial and ehrlichial diseases is via ticks that infest numerous host species, including humans. Besides mammals, reptiles and amphibians also carry ticks that may harbor <i>Rickettsia</i> and <i>Ehrlichia</i> strains that are pathogenic to humans. Furthermore, reptiles and amphibians are exempt from quarantine in Japan, thus facilitating the entry of parasites and pathogens to the country through import. Accordingly, in the current study, we examined the presence of <i>Rickettsia</i> and <i>Ehrlichia</i> spp. genes in ticks associated with reptiles and amphibians originating from outside Japan. Ninety-three ticks representing nine tick species (genera <i>Amblyomma</i> and <i>Hyalomma</i>) were isolated from at least 28 animals spanning 10 species and originating from 12 countries (Ghana, Jordan, Madagascar, Panama, Russia, Sri Lanka, Sudan, Suriname, Tanzania, Togo, Uzbekistan, and Zambia). None of the nine tick species are indigenous in Japan. The genes encoding the common rickettsial 17-kDa antigen, citrate synthase (<i>gltA</i>), and outer membrane protein A (<i>ompA</i>) were positively detected in 45.2% (42/93), 40.9% (38/93), and 23.7% (22/93) of the ticks, respectively, by polymerase chain reaction (PCR). The genes encoding ehrlichial heat shock protein (<i>groEL</i>) and major outer membrane protein (<i>omp-1</i>) were PCR-positive in 7.5% (7/93) and 2.2% (2/93) of the ticks, respectively. The <i>p44</i> gene, which encodes the <i>Anaplasma</i> outer membrane protein, was not detected. Phylogenetic analysis showed that several of the rickettsial and ehrlichial sequences isolated in this study were highly similar to human pathogen genes, including agents not previously detected in Japan. These data demonstrate the global transportation of pathogenic <i>Rickettsia</i> and <i>Ehrlichia</i> through reptile- and amphibian-associated ticks. These imported animals have potential to transfer pathogens into human life. These results highlight the need to control the international transportation of known and potential pathogens carried by ticks in reptiles, amphibians, and other animals, in order to improve national and international public health.</p></div

Phylogenetic relationships between the <i>Ehrlichia</i> spp. genes based on sequence comparison of the <i>groEL</i> gene 319-bp fragment.

<p>The phylogenetic branches showed supported of >70% by bootstrap analysis. Identified sequences are in bold type. The bar indicates the percentage of sequence divergence.</p

<i>Borrelia miyamotoi</i> strains used in this study.

<p><i>Borrelia miyamotoi</i> strains used in this study.</p

The prevalence of <i>B. miyamotoi</i> and LD borreliae in <i>Ixodes</i> ticks in Hokkaido.

<p>The asterisk shows significant difference: * P<0.01, by Fisher's exact test.</p

Prevalence of borreliae in ticks.

<p>*The numbers include mixed infections.</p