Characterisation and biodegradation of poly(latic acid) blended with oil palm biomass and fertiliser for bioplastic fertiliser composites

This work presents a new technique for producing a slow-release fertiliser with bioplastic polymer coating. Poly(lactic acid) (PLA) was blended with granular NPK fertiliser and empty fruit bunch (EFB) fibres using extrusion technique. The polymer coatings were characterised using thermal gravimetric analyser (TGA) and diffraction scanning calorimetry (DSC). The PLA and EFB fibres complemented each other in terms of their thermal stability in the BpF composites. A homogenous BpF blend was observed under a scanning electron microscope (SEM). In biodegradation the percentages of weight loss for PLA/EFB/NPKC1 and PLA/EFB/NPKC2 were higher due to the presence of EFB fibres, which were 64.3% and 76.3%, respectively

Effect of triacetin on tensile properties of oil palm empty fruit bunch fiber-reinforced polylactic acid composites.

The effects of triacetin as a plasticizer on the tensile properties and morphology of oil palm empty fruit bunch (EFB) fiber-reinforced polylactic acid (PLA) composites were studied. In this research, pulverized oil palm EFB fiber size from 0.25–0.50 mm were weighted with different fiber loadings and mixed with 5% triacetin. The obtained results indicated that the tensile strength and the Young's modulus of PLA/EFB composites with the addition of triacetin were enhanced at an 80% PLA and 20% EFB fiber loading. The interfacial properties between PLA and the EFB fiber were improved after the addition of triacetin

Characterization, morphology, and biodegradation of bioplastic fertilizer (BpF) composites made of poly(butylene succinate) blended with oil palm biomass and fertilizer

Poly(butylene succinate) (PBS) is a versatile biodegradable polymer that can be processed into slow-release bioplastic fertilizer (BpF) composites using twin screw extruder extrusion method, with controlled formulation and temperature. In this study, slow-release BpF composites were created by blending NPK fertilizer with biodegradable plastic composites and oil palm biomass. Temperature processing was done at 125°C–145°C for 3–5 min using twin screw extruder. Its thermal degradation occurred initially at 263.44°C and reached maximum at 300.73°C. In biodegradation test, the weight losses of PBS/NPKC1 and PBS/NPKC2 were about 60% while the weight losses of PBS/EFB/NPKC1 and PBS/EFB/NPKC2 were 72.68% and 73.09%, respectively. It was observed under scanning electron microscope that PB1 and PB2 showed more homogeneous adhesion and better wetting of PBS

Properties of slow release fertilizer composites made from electron beam-irradiated poly (butylene succinate) compounded with oil palm biomass and fertilizer

Electron beam irradiation at certain absorption doses can affect the chain scission and crosslinking of poly(butylene succinate) (PBS) molecules, as well as their thermal properties. In this study, slow release fertilizer composites were produced by compounding neat PBS with NPK fertilizer and oil palm empty fruit bunch using a twin-screw extrusion method. It was found that granular PBS irradiated with up to 50 kGy remarkably improved the bonding and dispersion of the PBS matrix. The subsequent experiment also showed that the biodegradation of slow release fertilizer composites in soil could be improved via electron beam irradiation

Characterization Study of Empty Fruit Bunch (EFB) Fibers Reinforcement in Poly(Butylene) Succinate (PBS)/Starch/Glycerol Composite Sheet

In this study, a mixture of thermoplastic polybutylene succinate (PBS), tapioca starch, glycerol and empty fruit bunch fiber was prepared by a melt compounding method using an industrial extruder. Generally, insertion of starch/glycerol has provided better strength performance, but worse thermal and water uptake to all specimens. The effect of fiber loading on mechanical, morphological, thermal and physical properties was studied in focus. Low interfacial bonding between fiber and matrix revealed a poor mechanical performance. However, higher fiber loadings have improved the strength values. This is because fibers regulate good load transfer mechanisms, as confirmed from SEM micrographs. Tensile and flexural strengths have increased 6.0% and 12.2%, respectively, for 20 wt% empty fruit bunch (EFB) fiber reinforcements. There was a slightly higher mass loss for early stage thermal decomposition, whereas regardless of EFB contents, insignificant changes on decomposition temperature were recorded. A higher lignin constituent in the composite (for high natural fiber volume) resulted in a higher mass residue, which would turn into char at high temperature. This observation indirectly proves the dimensional integrity of the composite. However, as expected, with higher EFB fiber contents in the composite, higher values in both the moisture uptake and moisture loss analyses were found. The hydroxyl groups in the EFB absorbed water moisture through formation of hydrogen bonding

Effect of kenaf and EFB fiber hybridization on physical and thermo-mechanical properties of PLA biocomposites

Kenaf/empty fruit bunch/polylactic acid (kenaf/EFB/PLA) hybrid biocomposites were prepared using hot press technique. The ratio of fiber to polylactic acid was set at 60:40 with 1:1 ratio between kenaf and empty fruit bunch fibers. Physical, mechanical and thermal properties of hybrid biocomposites were subsequently characterized using Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy, scanning electron microscope, X-ray diffraction, thermogravimetric analysis, differential scanning calorimetry, tensile and water absorption tests. Test results indicated that mechanically stronger fiber was able to support the weaker fiber. Hybrid fiber biocomposite had higher crystallinity as compared to single fiber biocomposite. Water absorption of hybrid composite was higher as compared to single fiber composite. Thermal result revealed that hybridization of fiber was not significantly influence the thermal properties of composites. However, the presence of two different fibers proposed good wettability properties, which could reduce the formation of voids at the fibers-polymer interface and produce composites with high stiffness and strength

The effects of multi-walled CNT in bamboo/glass fibre hybrid composites: tensile and flexural properties

Recently, polymer nanocomposites have been fabricated using carbon nanotubes (CNTs) as reinforcement nanofillers. However, the effect of incorporating CNT/polymer into hybrid composites with natural fibre is not clear. This study investigated the effect of using multi-walled carbon nanotube material (MWCNT) as the nanofiller on the tensile and flexural properties of bamboo/glass fibre hybrid composites. Composites containing various weight fractions of CNTs (0.1 wt.%, 0.3 wt.%, 0.5 wt.%, and 1.0 wt.%) were compared with the control hybrid composites. The hybrid composites were prepared with epoxy resin. The experimental results revealed an increase in the tensile strength of the composites with the addition of up to 0.5 wt.% CNTs (+7.7% over the control hybrid). However, beyond this value, i.e., with 1.0 wt.% CNT additives, the composite strength showed a remarkable decrease (-36.8% compared with the control hybrid). Moreover, introducing CNTs into hybrid composites resulted reduced the flexural properties with increasing weight fractions as low as 8.45% compared with the controls. In sum, the tensile properties increased with the addition of up to 0.5 wt.% CNTs, but there was a decrease in the flexural properties

Thermal, physical and mechanical properties of polybutylene succinate/kenaf core fibers composites reinforced with esterified lignin

In this study, Kraft lignin was esterified with phthalic anhydride and was served as reinforcing filler for poly(butylene succinate) (PBS). Composites with different ratios of PBS, lignin (L), modified lignin (ML) and kenaf core fibers (KCF) were fabricated using a compounding method. The fabricated PBS composites and its counterparts were tested for thermal, physical and mechanical properties. Weight percent gain of 4.5% after lignin modification and the FTIR spectra has confirmed the occurrence of an esterification reaction. Better thermo-mechanical properties were observed in the PBS composites reinforced with modified lignin and KCF, as higher storage modulus and loss modulus were recorded using dynamic mechanical analysis. The density of the composites fabricated ranged from 1.26 to 1.43 g/cm3. Water absorption of the composites with the addition of modified lignin is higher than that of composites with unmodified lignin. Pure PBS exhibited the highest tensile strength of 18.62 MPa. Incorporation of lignin and KCF into PBS resulted in different extents of reduction in tensile strength (15.78 to 18.60 MPa). However, PBS composite reinforced with modified lignin exhibited better tensile and flexural strength compared to its unmodified lignin counterpart. PBS composite reinforced with 30 wt% ML and 20 wt% KCF had the highest Izod impact, as fibers could diverge the cracking propagation of the matrix. The thermal conductivity value of the composites ranged from 0.0903 to 0.0983 W/mK, showing great potential as a heat insulator

Effect of Lignin Modification on Properties of Kenaf Core Fiber Reinforced Poly(Butylene Succinate) Biocomposites

In this study, the effects of lignin modification on the properties of kenaf core fiber reinforced poly(butylene succinate) biocomposites were examined. A weight percent gain (WPG) value of 30.21% was recorded after the lignin were modified with maleic anhydride. Lower mechanical properties were observed for lignin composites because of incompatible bonding between the hydrophobic matrix and the hydrophilic lignin. Modified lignin (ML) was found to have a better interfacial bonding, since maleic anhydrides remove most of the hydrophilic hydrogen bonding (this was proven by a Fourier-transform infrared (FTIR) spectrometer—a reduction of broadband near 3400 cm−1, corresponding to the –OH stretching vibration of hydroxyl groups for the ML samples). On the other hand, ML was found to have a slightly lower glass transition temperature, Tg, since reactions with maleic anhydride destroy most of the intra- and inter-molecular hydrogen bonds, resulting in a softer structure at elevated temperatures. The addition of kraft lignin was found to increase the thermal stability of the PBS polymer composites, while modified kraft lignin showed higher thermal stability than pure kraft lignin and possessed delayed onset thermal degradation temperature

Development of slow release fertilizer from oil palm empty fruit bunch biopolymer composites

The use of fertilizers in agricultural sector has increased drastically along with the increasing food demand and world population. The high volume usage of conventional fertilizers is still rampant and it has brought a negative effect such as underground water pollution, environmental pollution, and health issues as well. At present, the utilization of chemical fertilizer in conventional fertilizer (broadcast system) such as nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium (NPK) has need 2.5 metric ton a year for an oil palm nursery. With application of slow released fertilizer (SRF) prepared using coating method, the usage has reduced to 1.8 metric ton per year. Furthermore, in order to extend the duration of SRF degradation release time, reduce the fertilizer cycle application. The industry seeks for new method of compounding to optimise the degradation and release rate. This study attempts to use twin screw extrusion method in compounding SRF that contains NPK fertilizer, biopolymer as well as the empty fruit bunch (EFB) fibre. EFB to improve the compatibility between biopolymer and NPK to produce good bonding of SRF composites beside it function as micro nutrient to the soil. The degradability of SRF composites is depending on the mechanism the NPK and EFB fibre in the twin screw barrel. It is anticipated that encapsulated at the outer layer of the mixture (EFB and NPK). Therefore, the encapsulate layer will be functional as slow released agent. The optimum processing temperature for all polymer used i.e. poly (lactic acid) PLA was 145- 150°C, poly (butylene succinate) PBS was 120-145°C, and poly (hydroxybutyrate-co-valerate) PHBv was 150-180°C. The speed of counter rotating twin screw extruder were set at 50 rpm and the feeder screw for NPK fertilizer, polymer and oil palm fibre was running at speed of 20 rpm. In this study, the formulation of BpF composites used comprises of polymer/NPK fertilizer (40/60%) and polymer/empty fruit bunch (EFB) fibres/NPK fertilizer (30/10/60%) ratio compounding. Scanning electron microscopy SEM was used to study dispersion of the EFB and fertilizer in the polymer. The morphological results showed that EFB and NPK distribution is well dispersed besides showed good bonding with the polymers. To ensure the effectiveness of the slow-release bioplastic fertilizer composite to be used in oil palm nursery, a biodegradation test was conducted. This test spanned over 24 weeks. Based on the results, the new invention of SRF composite namely as Biopolymer Fertilizer, (BpF) composite showed slower rate degradation rate as compared to pure NPK fertilizer. However BpF shown higher rate in degradation as compared to pure polymer mixed with NPK only. At early stage, of week 8, BpF composites experienced 40% of degradation for all formulation used. Continuous degradation until week 16 showed that BpF with the combination of PHBv/ EFB/NPK reached 100% of degradation. BpF made of PBS/EFB/NPK and PLA/EFB/NPK composite formulations have reached 80% degradation in week 24. BpF composites were further tested in leachate column in order to determine the reaction of BpF with water. From the study, all BpF composites have showed the nitrogen release between 15% and 40% at week 8 to 12. This elucidated the presence of reaction of the fertilizer in the composite systems. Nursery field test for 4-month old of oil palm seedlings was conducted. The results showed that the development and growth of the seedlings were excellent in terms of plant growth such as diameter, height, the number of fronds, and chlorophyll content. The growth of the seedlings applied with BpF was increased every week as compared to non BpF. The diameter and height with BpF composite is increased at the rate between 20% and 30%. The chlorophyll content increased around 20% with BpF composite. In conclusion, BpF composite has the potential as slow-release fertilizer in oil palm seedling nursery and thus reduce the relying of pure chemical fertilizer