Practical implementation of the double linear damage rule and damage curve approach for treating cumulative fatigue damage

Simple procedures are presented for treating cumulative fatigue damage under complex loading history using either the damage curve concept or the double linear damage rule. A single equation is provided for use with the damage curve approach; each loading event providing a fraction of damage until failure is presumed to occur when the damage sum becomes unity. For the double linear damage rule, analytical expressions are provided for determining the two phases of life. The procedure involves two steps, each similar to the conventional application of the commonly used linear damage rule. When the sum of cycle ratios based on phase 1 lives reaches unity, phase 1 is presumed complete, and further loadings are summed as cycle ratios on phase 2 lives. When the phase 2 sum reaches unity, failure is presumed to occur. No other physical properties or material constants than those normally used in a conventional linear damage rule analysis are required for application of either of the two cumulative damage methods described. Illustrations and comparisons of both methods are discussed

Re-examination of cumulative fatigue damage analysis: An engineering perspective

A method which has evolved in our laboratories for the past 20 yr is re-examined with the intent of improving its accuracy and simplicity of application to engineering problems. Several modifications are introduced both to the analytical formulation of the Damage Curve Approach, and to the procedure for modifying this approach to achieve a Double Linear Damage Rule formulation which immensely simplifies the calculation. Improvements are also introduced in the treatment of mean stress for determining fatigue life of the individual events that enter into a complex loading history. While the procedure is completely consistent with the results of numerous two level tests that have been conducted on many materials, it is still necessary to verify applicability to complex loading histories. Caution is expressed that certain phenomena can also influence the applicability - for example, unusual deformation and fracture modes inherent in complex loading - especially if stresses are multiaxial. Residual stresses at crack tips, and metallurgical factors are also important in creating departures from the cumulative damage theories; examples of departures are provided

Life prediction of thermal-mechanical fatigue using strain-range partitioning

The applicability is described of the method of Strainrange Partitioning to the life prediction of thermal-mechanical strain-cycling fatigue. An in-phase test on 316 stainless steel is analyzed as an illustrative example. The observed life is in excellent agreement with the life predicted by the method using the recently proposed Step-Stress Method of experimental partitioning, the Interation Damage Rule, and the life relationships determined at an isothermal temperature of 705 C. Implications of the study are discussed relative to the general thermal fatigue problem

Tensile and Compressive Constitutive Response of 316 Stainless Steel at Elevated Temperatures

Creep rate in compression is lower by factors of 2 to 10 than in tension if the microstructure of the two specimens is the same and are tested at equal temperatures and equal but opposite stresses. Such behavior is characteristic for monotonic creep and conditions involving cyclic creep. In the latter case creep rate in both tension and compression progressively increases from cycle to cycle, rendering questionable the possibility of expressing a time stabilized constitutive relationship. The difference in creep rates in tension and compression is considerably reduced if the tension specimen is first subjected to cycles of tensile creep (reversed by compressive plasticity), while the compression specimen is first subjected to cycles of compressive creep (reversed by tensile plasticity). In both cases, the test temperature is the same and the stresses are equal and opposite. Such reduction is a reflection of differences in microstructure of the specimens resulting from different prior mechanical history

Treatment of multiaxial creep-fatigue by strainrange partitioning

Strainrange partitioning is a recently developed method for treating creep-fatigue interaction at elevated temperature. Most of the work to date has been on uniaxially loaded specimens, where as practical applications often involve load multiaxiality. It is shown how the method can be extended to treat multiaxiality through a set of rules for combining the strain components in the three principal directions. Closed hysteresis loops, as well as plastic and creep strain ratcheting are included. An application to hold-time tests in torsion will be used to illustrate the approach

Creep-fatigue analysis by Strainrange Partitioning

Strainrange Partitioning provides unifying framework for characterizing high-temperature, low-cycle, creep-fatigue properties of metals and alloys. Method offers distinct advantage to designers of immediately providing reliable upper and lower bounds on cyclic life for any type of inelastic strain cycle that may be encountered in service

Exposure time considerations in high temperature low cycle fatigue

The Conventional Strainrange Partitioning (CSRP) method for High-Temperature, Low-Cycle Fatigue (HTLCF) life prediction has its origins in the modeling of first-order, creep-fatigue waveform effects while treating as second-order effects, the influence of metallurgical or environmental time dependencies. Procedures are proposed to include the latter explicitly in the inelastic strainrange--life relations. For brevity, only the CP life relation will be presented in detail. The exposure-time effect within the CP inelastic strainrange (tensile creep reversed by compressive plasticity) was determined by tensile stresshold-time experiments for 316 SS at 816 C. Reductions in CP cyclic life of a factor of about two were observed with an increase in exposure time or a corresponding decrease in creep rate by a factor of about 100. The CP life relation has been modified to be expressed in terms of either Steady State Creep Rate (SSCR) or Exposure Time (ET). The applicability and accuracy of the time-dependent CP life relations is demonstrated by conducting verification experiments involving complex hysteresis loops. Metallographic examination revealed time-dependent degradation attributable to oxide formation and precipitation of carbides along grain boundaries

Separation of the strain components for use in strainrange partitioning

Two methods are presented for separating the inelastic strain components of a complex hysteresis loop so that strainrange partitioning formulas can be applied to accurately determine cyclic life at elevated temperatures. These methods are required only if lower bounds established by strainrange partitioning concepts have been deemed inadequate in the establishment of expected lifetime. In one method, rapid loading and unloading is applied in the tensile and compressive half to isolate the plastic strain. In the second method, the creep is measured at a discrete number of points along the hysteresis loop by combining load-control tests into the general pattern of strain cycling under arbitrary temperature. Both methods are shown to give good results

Relation of cyclic loading pattern to microstructural fracture in creep fatigue

Creep-fatigue-environment interaction is discussed using the 'strainrange partitioning' (SRP) framework as a basis. The four generic SRP strainrange types are studied with a view of revealing differences in micromechanisms of deformation and fatigue degradation. Each combines in a different manner the degradation associated with slip-plane sliding, grain-boundary sliding, migration, cavitation, void development and environmental interaction; hence the approch is useful in delineating the relative importance of these mechanisms in the different loadings. Micromechanistic results are shown for a number of materials, including 316 SS, wrought heat resistant alloys, several nickel-base superalloys, and a tantalum base alloy, T-111. Although there is a commonality of basic behavior, the differences are useful in delineation several important principles of interpretation. Some quantitative results are presented for 316 SS, involving crack initiation and early crack growth, as well as the interaction of low-cycle fatigue with high-cycle fatigue

Cereal asparagine synthetase genes

Asparagine synthetase catalyses the transfer of an amino group from glutamine to aspartate to form glutamate and asparagine. The accumulation of free (non-protein) asparagine in crops has implications for food safety because free asparagine is the precursor for acrylamide, a carcinogenic contaminant that forms during high-temperature cooking and processing. Here we review publicly-available genome data for asparagine synthetase genes from species of the Pooideae subfamily, including bread wheat and related wheat species (Triticum and Aegilops spp.), barley (Hordeum vulgare) and rye (Secale cereale) of the Triticeae tribe. Also from the Pooideae subfamily: brachypodium (Brachypodium dystachion) of the Brachypodiae tribe. More diverse species are also included, comprising sorghum (Sorghum bicolor) and maize (Zea mays) of the Panicoideae subfamily, and rice (Oryza sativa) of the Ehrhartoideae subfamily. The asparagine synthetase gene families of the Triticeae species each comprise five genes per genome, with the genes assigned to four groups: 1, 2, 3 (subdivided into 3.1 and 3.2) and 4. Each species has a single gene per genome in each group, except that some bread wheat varieties (genomes AABBDD) and emmer wheat (Triticum dicoccoides; genomes AABB) lack a group 2 gene in the B genome. This raises questions about the ancestry of cultivated pasta wheat and the B genome donor of bread wheat, suggesting that the hybridisation event that gave rise to hexaploid bread wheat occurred more than once. In phylogenetic analyses, genes from the other species cluster with the Triticeae genes, but brachypodium, sorghum and maize lack a group 2 gene, while rice has only two genes, one group 3 and one group 4. This means that TaASN2, the most highly expressed asparagine synthetase gene in wheat grain, has no equivalent in maize, rice, sorghum or brachypodium. An evolutionary pathway is proposed in which a series of gene duplications gave rise to the five genes found in modern Triticeae species