Comparative study of OROS-MPH and atomoxetine on executive function improvement in ADHD: a randomized controlled trial

This study aimed to compare the effects of osmotic release oral system-methylphenidate (OROS-MPH) and atomoxetine (ATX) on executive function in children and adolescents with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) by a randomized controlled trial. Subjects who met DSM-IV ADHD criteria were randomized to receive either OROS-MPH or ATX treatment. The doses were titrated to achieve optimal response and then maintained for 4-6 wk. A battery of executive function tests and the Behavior Rating Inventory of Executive Function (BRIEF) were administered to subjects who completed the dose titration (OROS-MPH, n = 85; ATX, n = 57) at the pre- and post-treatment periods. Forty-six children without ADHD were recruited as controls. Both OROS-MPH and ATX significantly improved scores in the Rey Complex Figure Test (RCFT), digit span, and Stroop color-word task. The scores in RCFT and the reverse digit span were not significantly different from the control group at post-treatment assessment (OROS-MPH = ATX = control, p > 0.05), whereas the word interference time of the Stroop test was still more than that of the control group (OROS-MPH = ATX > control, p > 0.05). OROS-MPH also significantly improved the total correct response in the verbal fluency test to normal level, and the shifting time in the trail-making test to subnormal level. The current findings suggest both OROS-MPH and ATX improved executive function generally in children and adolescents with ADHD, and could return working memory back to normative performance level

Complete Mitochondrial Genome of the Medicinal Mushroom <i>Ganoderma lucidum</i>

<div><p><i>Ganoderma lucidum</i> is one of the well-known medicinal basidiomycetes worldwide. The mitochondrion, referred to as the second genome, is an organelle found in most eukaryotic cells and participates in critical cellular functions. Elucidating the structure and function of this genome is important to understand completely the genetic contents of <i>G. lucidum</i>. In this study, we assembled the mitochondrial genome of <i>G. lucidum</i> and analyzed the differential expressions of its encoded genes across three developmental stages. The mitochondrial genome is a typical circular DNA molecule of 60,630 bp with a GC content of 26.67%. Genome annotation identified genes that encode 15 conserved proteins, 27 tRNAs, small and large rRNAs, four homing endonucleases, and two hypothetical proteins. Except for genes encoding <i>trnW</i> and two hypothetical proteins, all genes were located on the positive strand. For the repeat structure analysis, eight forward, two inverted, and three tandem repeats were detected. A pair of fragments with a total length around 5.5 kb was found in both the nuclear and mitochondrial genomes, which suggests the possible transfer of DNA sequences between two genomes. RNA-Seq data for samples derived from three stages, namely, mycelia, primordia, and fruiting bodies, were mapped to the mitochondrial genome and qualified. The protein-coding genes were expressed higher in mycelia or primordial stages compared with those in the fruiting bodies. The rRNA abundances were significantly higher in all three stages. Two regions were transcribed but did not contain any identified protein or tRNA genes. Furthermore, three RNA-editing sites were detected. Genome synteny analysis showed that significant genome rearrangements occurred in the mitochondrial genomes. This study provides valuable information on the gene contents of the mitochondrial genome and their differential expressions at various developmental stages of <i>G. lucidum</i>. The results contribute to the understanding of the functions and evolution of fungal mitochondrial DNA.</p></div

Codon usage and codon-anticodon recognition pattern for tRNA in the mitochondrial genome of <i>Ganoderma lucidum</i>.

<p>Abbreviations: “AA”: amino acid; “+”: one copy of tRNA gene is found; “++”: two copies of tRNA genes are found; “+++”: three copies of tRNA genes are found; “−”: no corresponding tRNA genes are found; “*”: stop codons.</p

Introns found in mitochondrial genes.

<p>Introns found in mitochondrial genes.</p

Identification of RNA-editing sites.

a<p>The numbers outside the parenthesis represent the numbers of RNA-Seq reads mapped to the position showing the variants, whereas the numbers inside represent the numbers of all RNA-Seq reads mapped to this position.</p

Mitochondrial gene expressions.

<p>A. Graphic representation of mRNA abundance for the indicated genes at differential stages analyzed by RNA-Seq. B. Graphic representation of mRNA abundance for the indicated genes at differential stages, as measured by RT-qPCR or RNA-Seq. Error bars denote the standard deviation of the three RT-qPCR replicates. C. Hierarchical clustering of mitochondrial gene expression across three different developmental stages: mycelia, primordia, and fruiting bodies.</p

Similarity analysis of sequences between mtDNA and nuclear DNA.

<p>The top sequence represents the scaffold 48 from the nuclear genome assembly galu96 and the bottom sequence represents the mitochondrion. The homologous regions can be classified into three regions, namely, R1 (white box), R2 (green box), and R3 (blue box), which are connected with black lines at both ends of the corresponding fragments. The coordinates showing the start and end of each region are also shown. F1 and F3 represent two forward repeats. Endonuclease gene and <i>atp6</i> are also indicated (red box) in GaLu96_scf48.</p

Genetic contents in the mitochondrial genome of <i>Ganoderma lucidum</i>.

<p><i>trnM-CAU</i>^a, <i>trnM-CAU</i>^b, and <i>trnM-CAU</i>^c represent three <i>trnM</i> isoforms with the same anticodon but different sequences. <i>trnS-GCU^d</i> and <i>trnS-GCU^e</i> mean two <i>trnS</i> copies with the same sequences.</p

Mitochondrial transcriptome of <i>Ganoderma lucidum</i> in three differential developmental stages.

<p>Red and blue colors indicate that the genes or reads are on the forward and reverse strands, respectively. (A) Genome organization of <i>G. lucidum</i> mitochondria. The intron and exon structures of genes, as well as the names of genes, are shown. Two TAR regions, namely, TAR1 and TAR2, are shown. The mapping of RNA-Seq reads from mycelia (B), primordia (C), and fruiting bodies (D) is also shown. The nucleotide coordinates are shown at the very bottom of the figure.</p

Ideogram of mitochondrial genome of <i>Ganoderma lucidum</i>.

<p>Genes indicated by closed boxes on the outside of the circle are located on the positive strand, whereas those on the inside (<i>orf1, orf2</i>, and <i>trnW</i>) of the circle are located on the negative strand. The genome coordinates and GC contents are shown in the inner circle. The genes are colored based on the functional group they belong. The color scheme is shown in the middle of the circle. Four intron proteins, namely, <i>ip1</i>, <i>ip2</i>, <i>ip3</i>, <i>and ip4</i>, are drawn within the corresponding genes. Four putative clusters of tRNA genes are indicated with brackets and Roman numerals. For clarity, tRNA genes, which are present as isoforms, are indicated by attaching the anticodon to the gene name.</p