Review of Reduced Order Models for Heat and Moisture Transfer in Building Physics with Emphasis in PGD Approaches

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Gender-Specific Association of Galanin Polymorphisms with HPA-Axis Dysregulation, Symptom Severity, and Antidepressant Treatment Response

Galanin (GAL) is an estrogen-inducible neuropeptide, highly expressed in brain regions reported to be involved in regulation of mood and anxiety. GAL possibly has a direct modulatory effect on hypothalamic–pituitary–adrenal (HPA)-axis regulation. Recent data from pharmacological and genetic studies indicate a significant function of GAL in stress-related disorders. By using a tag SNP approach covering the locus encoding preprogalanin (PPGAL), earlier findings of female-specific associations of polymorphisms in this locus with panic disorder were expanded to a larger sample of 268 outpatients with anxiety disorders (ADs). Within a larger sample of 541 inpatients with major depressive disorder (MDD), we then tested associations of one PPGAL tag SNP with specific depression symptom clusters and HPA-axis activity assessed by the combined dexamethasone-suppression/CRH-stimulation test both at inpatient admission and discharge (n=298). Gender specificity as well as dependence of the association on levels of circulating estrogens was analyzed. Genotyping revealed high linkage disequilibrium in the promoter area of the PPGAL gene, which includes several estrogen-response elements. Confirming earlier results, rs948854, tagging this promoter region, was associated with more severe anxiety pathology in female AD patients, but not in males. In premenopausal female MDD patients, the same allele of rs948854 was associated with more severe vegetative but not cognitive depressive symptoms at discharge and worse treatment response on antidepressant medication. Furthermore, this allele was associated with higher HPA-axis activity at admission. No significant case–control associations could be observed. However, because of power limitations of both patient samples, small effects cannot be excluded. The reported associations in independent samples of AD and MDD support an estrogen-dependent function of GAL in pathophysiology of anxiety and depression, affecting response to antidepressant treatment

Endocrine disturbances in depression

Depression is one of the most common psychiatric disorders. For a long time, clinicians suspected a causal link between depression and the endocrine system. The most frequently occurring endocrine abnormality in depressed subjects is hyperactivity of the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis. CRH and AVP are likely to play a substantial role in the pathophysiology of this disorder, and their receptors appear to be a specific target for future antidepressant drugs. Depression also affects the hypothalamic-pituitary-GH (HPGH) and -thyroid (HPT) axes. Alterations in the reproductive system may also play a role in the pathology of depression. In addition, there is increasing evidence that leptin and neurosteroids, such as DHEA, are implicated in mood disorders