Implementation effectiveness of revised (post-2010) World Health Organization guidelines on prevention of mother-to-child transmission of HIV using routinely collected data in sub-Saharan Africa: A systematic literature review.

BACKGROUND: To synthesize and evaluate the impact of implementing post-2010 World Health Organization (WHO) prevention of mother-to-child transmission (PMTCT) guidelines on attainment of PMTCT targets. METHODS: Retrospective and prospective cohort study designs that utilized routinely collected data with a focus on provision and utilization of the cascade of PMTCT services were included. The outcomes included the proportion of pregnant women who were tested during their antenatal clinic (ANC) visits; mother-to-child transmission (MTCT) rate; adherence; retention rate; and loss to follow-up (LTFU). RESULTS: Of the 1210 references screened, 45 met the inclusion criteria. The studies originated from 14 countries in sub-Saharan Africa. The highest number of studies originated from Malawi (10) followed by Nigeria and South Africa with 7 studies each. More than half of the studies were on option A while the majority of option B+ studies were conducted in Malawi. These studies indicated a high uptake of human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) testing ranging from 75% in Nigeria to over 96% in Zimbabwe and South Africa. High proportions of CD4 count testing were reported in studies only from South Africa despite that in most of the countries CD4 testing was a prerequisite to access treatment. MTCT rate ranged from 1.1% to 15.1% and it was higher in studies where data were collected in the early days of the WHO 2010 PMTCT guidelines. During the postpartum period, adherence and retention rate decreased, and LTFU increased for both HIV-positive mothers and exposed infants. CONCLUSION: Irrespective of which option was followed, uptake of antenatal HIV testing was high but there was a large drop off along later points in the PMTCT cascade. More research is needed on how to improve later components of the PMTCT cascade, especially of option B+ which is now the norm throughout sub-Saharan Africa

Progress in the performance of HIV early infant diagnosis services in Zambia using routinely collected data from 2006 to 2016.

BACKGROUND: Early diagnosis and treatment initiation of HIV-infected infants can greatly reduce the risk of infant mortality. The WHO recommends testing HIV-exposed infants at 6 weeks of age and immediate initiation of antiretroviral therapy if positive. This study aimed to determine the feasibility of using an electronic health records system to evaluate the performance of Zambia's HIV Early Infant Diagnosis services. METHODS: A retrospective analysis of routinely collected data from the Zambian SmartCare database was performed for the period January 2006 to December 2016. The study population includes all HIV-infected infants (n = 32,593) registered during this period on treatment for HIV. Univariable logistic regression was conducted to identify factors associated with later infant testing and treatment initiation. RESULTS: The mean age at infant HIV test decreased from 10.10 months in 2006 to 3.49 months in 2016. Infants born in 2015 were almost 4 times more likely to be tested under 2 months of age compared to infants born in 2006 (OR: 3.72, p-value: < 0.001). The mean time from diagnosis to treatment initiation decreased from 220 days in 2006 to 9 days in 2015. There was substantial regional variability with infants in the provinces of Copperbelt, Luapula and Southern performing best in outcomes and Eastern, Lusaka and Western performing the worst. CONCLUSIONS: HIV-exposed infants born more recently have significantly better outcomes than infants born a decade ago in Zambia, which could be as a result of increased attention and funding for HIV programmes

A qualitative inquiry into implementing an electronic health record system (SmartCare) for prevention of mother-to-child transmission data in Zambia: a retrospective study.

OBJECTIVE: This study aimed to investigate the challenges in implementing a Zambian electronic health records (EHR) system labelled 'SmartCare' from diverse stakeholder perspectives in order to improve prevention of mother-to-child transmission (PMTCT) data collection so that SmartCare can be used for clinic performance strengthening and programme monitoring. DESIGN: This is a qualitative retrospective study. SETTING AND PARTICIPANTS: SmartCare is a Zambian Ministry of Health (MoH)-led project funded by the US Centre for Disease Control and Prevention. Data were collected using in-depth interviews, observations and focus group discussions (FGDs) between September and November 2016. Seventeen in-depth interviews were held with a range of key informants from the MoH and local and international organisations implementing SmartCare. Four data entry observations and three FGDs with 22 pregnant and lactating women seeking PMTCT services were conducted. Data were analysed using a thematic content approach. RESULTS: The SmartCare system has evolved from various patient tracking systems into a multifunctional system. There is a burden of information required so that sometimes not all is collected and entered into the database, resulting in poor data quality. Funding challenges impede data collection due to manpower constraints and shortages of supplies. Challenges associated with data collection depend on whether a paper-based or computer-based system is used. There is no uniformity in the data quality verification and submission strategies employed by various IPs. There is little feedback from the EHR system at health facility level, which has led to disengagement as stakeholders do not see the importance of the system. CONCLUSION: SmartCare has structural challenges which can be traced from its development. Funding gaps have resulted in staffing and data collection disparities within IPs. The lack of feedback from the system has also led to complacency at the operational level, which has resulted in poor data quality in later years

Increasing Proportion of HIV-Infected Pregnant Zambian Women Attending Antenatal Care Are Already on Antiretroviral Therapy (2010-2015).

Introduction: Accurate estimates of coverage of prevention of mother-to-child (PMTCT) services among HIV-infected pregnant women are vital for monitoring progress toward HIV elimination targets. The achievement of high coverage and uptake of services along the PMTCT cascade is crucial for national and international mother-to child transmission (MTCT) elimination goals. In eastern and southern Africa, MTCT rate fell from 18% of infants born to mothers living with HIV in 2010 to 6% in 2015. This paper describes the degree to which World Health Organization (WHO) guidelines for PMTCT services were implemented in Zambia between 2010 and 2015. Method: The study used routinely collected data from all pregnant women attending antenatal clinics (ANC) in SmartCare health facilities from January 2010 to December 2015. Categorical variables were summarized using proportions while continuous variables were summarized using medians and interquartile ranges. Results: There were 104,155 pregnant women who attended ANC services in SmartCare facilities during the study period. Of these, 9% tested HIV-positive during ANC visits whilst 43% had missing HIV test result records. Almost half (47%) of pregnant women who tested HIV-positive in their ANC visit were recorded in 2010. Among HIV-positive women, there was an increase in those already on ART at first ANC visit from 9% in 2011 to 74% in 2015. The overall mean time lag between starting ANC care and ART initiation was 7 months, over the 6 year period, but there were notable variations between provinces and years. Conclusion: The implementation of the WHO post 2010 PMTCT guidelines has resulted in an increase in the proportion of HIV-infected pregnant women attending ANC who are already on ART. However, the variability in HIV infection rates, missing data, and time to initiation of ART suggests there are some underlying health service or database issues which require attention

Association of postnatal severe acute malnutrition with pancreatic exocrine and endocrine function in children and adults: a systematic review.

Severe acute malnutrition may lead both concurrently and subsequently to malabsorption and impaired glucose metabolism from pancreatic dysfunction. We conducted a systematic review to investigate the associations of current and prior postnatal wasting malnutrition with pancreatic endocrine and exocrine functions in humans. We searched PubMed, Google Scholar, Web of Science and reference lists of retrieved articles, limited to articles in English published before 1 February 2022. We included sixty-eight articles, mostly cross-sectional or cohort studies from twenty-nine countries including 592 530 participants, of which 325 998 were from a single study. Many were small clinical studies from decades ago and rated poor quality. Exocrine pancreas function, indicated by duodenal fluid or serum enzymes, or faecal elastase, was generally impaired in malnutrition. Insulin production was usually low in malnourished children and adults. Glucose disappearance during oral and intravenous glucose tolerance tests was variable. Upon treatment of malnutrition, most abnormalities improved but frequently not to control levels. Famine survivors studied decades later showed ongoing impaired glucose tolerance with some evidence of sex differences. The similar findings from anorexia nervosa, famine survivors and poverty- or infection-associated malnutrition in low- and middle-income countries (LMIC) lend credence to results being due to malnutrition itself. Research using large, well-documented cohorts and considering sexes separately, is needed to improve prevention and treatment of exocrine and endocrine pancreas abnormalities in LMIC with a high burden of malnutrition and diabetes

Employing Demand-Based Volumetric Forecasting to Identify Potential for and Roles of Devices in Scale-Up of Medical Male Circumcision in Zambia and Zimbabwe

Introduction: Devices for male circumcision (MC) are becoming available in 14 priority countries where MC is being implemented for HIV prevention. Understanding potential impact on demand for services is one important programmatic consideration because countries determine whether to scale up devices within MC programs. Methods: A population-based survey measuring willingness to undergo MC, assuming availability of surgical MC and 3 devices, was conducted among 1250 uncircumcised men, ages 10–49 years in Zambia and 1000 uncircumcised men, ages 13–49 years in Zimbabwe. Simulated Test Market methodology was used to estimate incremental MC demand and the extent to which devices might be preferred over surgery, assuming availability of: surgical MC in both countries; the devices PrePex, ShangRing, and Unicirc in Zambia; and PrePex in Zimbabwe. Results: Modeled estimates indicate PrePex has the potential to provide an overall increase in MC demand ranging from an estimated 13%–50%, depending on country and WHO prequalification ages, replacing 11%–41% of surgical procedures. In Zambia, ShangRing could provide 8% overall increase, replacing 45% of surgical procedures, and Unicirc could provide 30% overall increase, replacing 85% of surgical procedures. Conclusions: In both countries, devices have potential to increase overall demand for MC, assuming wide scale awareness and availability of circumcision by the devices. With consideration for age and country, PrePex may provide the greatest potential increase in demand, followed by Unicirc (measured in Zambia only) and ShangRing (also Zambia only). These results inform one program dimension for decision making on potential device introduction strategies; however, they must be considered within the broader programmatic context

Effect of prevention of mother-to-child transmission strategies on antiretroviral therapy coverage in pregnant women in Zambia: analysis using routinely collected data (2010–15)

Background: The WHO recommendation for lifelong antiretroviral therapy (ART) for all pregnant and lactating women (Option B+) has been adopted by nearly all countries with the highest HIV burdens. In January, 2013, Zambia announced that it would revise its guidelines on prevention of mother-to-child transmission (PMTCT) and adopt Option B+. Accurate estimates of coverage of PMTCT services in pregnant women with HIV are vital for monitoring progress towards HIV elimination targets. We aimed to show trends in the coverage of PMTCT services in Zambia from 2010 to 2015. We describe the proportion of women attending antenatal care who are HIV positive, the proportion of HIV-positive pregnant women who started ART, the proportion of HIV-infected women already on ART, and time to treatment initiation. Methods: This was a retrospective cohort study using routinely collected data from SmartCare, an electronic health record system. We included data from all pregnant women who attended antenatal care in the 889 health facilities using the SmartCare database in Zambia. Findings: We included data for 104 155 pregnant women who attended antenatal services in SmartCare facilities between Jan 1, 2010, and Dec 31, 2015. Of these women, 9% (9262) tested HIV-positive during antenatal visits and 43% (44 387) had missing HIV test results. Almost half (47%, [4375]) the pregnant women who tested HIV-positive in their antenatal visit were recorded in 2010. Among HIV-positive women, there was an increase in those already on ART at first antenatal visit from 9% (40) in 2011 to 74% (1 155) in 2015. In our study, 65% (983/1501) of the women who started ART after testing HIV-positive during antenatal care were documented after the adoption of Option B+ (2013–15). Mean time lag between starting antenatal care and ART initiation was 7 months over the 6 year study period, but there were notable variations between provinces and years. Interpretation: The implementation of WHO PMTCT guidelines introduced after 2010 in Zambia has resulted in an increase in the proportion of HIV-infected pregnant women attending antenatal care who are already on ART. The SmartCare database could enable Zambian health policy makers to act on urgent PMTCT interventions and improve health-care quality and outcomes for mothers and their infants. However, there is a need first to improve procedures for data collection and entry. The number of missing data observations indicate the need for further qualitative research on why so many records were missing from the database. Funding: SEARCH (Sustainable Evaluation through Analysis of Routinely Collected HIV data) and the Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation (grant number OPP1084472)

Attitudes and decision-making about early-infant versus early-adolescent male circumcision: Demand-side insights for sustainable HIV prevention strategies in Zambia and Zimbabwe

As countries approach their scale-up targets for the voluntary medical male circumcision program for HIV prevention, they are strategizing and planning for the sustainability phase to follow. Global guidance recommends circumcising adolescent (below 14 years) and/or early infant boys (aged 0–60 days), and countries need to consider several factors before prioritizing a cohort for their sustainability phase. We provide community and healthcare provider-side insights on attitudes and decision-making process as a key input for this strategic decision in Zambia and Zimbabwe. We studied expectant parents, parents of infant boys (aged 0–60 days), family members and neo-natal and ante-natal healthcare providers in Zambia and Zimbabwe. Our integrated methodology consisted of in-depth qualitative and quantitative one-on-one interviews, and a simulated-decision-making game, to uncover attitudes towards, and the decision-making process for, early adolescent or early infant medical circumcision (EAMC or EIMC). In both countries, parents viewed early infancy and early adolescence as equally ideal ages for circumcision (38% EIMC vs. 37% EAMC in Zambia; 24% vs. 27% in Zimbabwe). If offered for free, about half of Zambian parents and almost 2 in 5 Zimbabwean parents indicated they would likely circumcise their infant boy; however, half of parents in each country perceived that the community would not accept EIMC. Nurses believed their facilities currently could not absorb EIMC services and that they would have limited ability to influence fathers, who were seen as having the primary decision-making authority. Our analysis suggests that EAMC is more accepted by the community than EIMC and is the path of least resistance for the sustainability phase of VMMC. However, parents or community members do not reject EIMC. Should countries choose to prioritize this cohort for their sustainability phase, a number of barriers around information, decision-making by parents, and supply side will need to be addressed

A case study for a psychographic-behavioral segmentation approach for targeted demand generation in voluntary medical male circumcision

Public health programs are starting to recognize the need to move beyond a one-size-fits-all approach in demand generation, and instead tailor interventions to the heterogeneity underlying human decision making. Currently, however, there is a lack of methods to enable such targeting. We describe a novel hybrid behavioral-psychographic segmentation approach to segment stakeholders on potential barriers to a target behavior. We then apply the method in a case study of demand generation for voluntary medical male circumcision (VMMC) among 15–29 year-old males in Zambia and Zimbabwe. Canonical correlations and hierarchical clustering techniques were applied on representative samples of men in each country who were differentiated by their underlying reasons for their propensity to get circumcised. We characterized six distinct segments of men in Zimbabwe, and seven segments in Zambia, according to their needs, perceptions, attitudes and behaviors towards VMMC, thus highlighting distinct reasons for a failure to engage in the desired behavior

Sources of information about circumcising baby boys, ages 0 to 2 months after birth.

<p>Sources of information about circumcising baby boys, ages 0 to 2 months after birth.</p