Challenges and Benefits of Standardising Early Warning Systems: A Case Study of New Zealand’s Volcanic Alert Level System

Volcano early warning systems are used globally to communicate volcano-related information to diverse stakeholders ranging from specific user groups to the general public, or both. Within the framework of a volcano early warning system, Volcano Alert Level (VAL) systems are commonly used as a simple communication tool to inform society about the status of activity at a specific volcano. Establishing a VAL system that is effective for multiple volcanoes can be challenging, given that each volcano has specific behavioural characteristics. New Zealand has a wide range of volcano types and geological settings, including rhyolitic calderas capable of very large eruptions (>500 km3) and frequent unrest episodes, explosive andesitic stratovolcanoes, and effusive basaltic eruptions at both caldera and volcanic field settings. There is also a range in eruption frequency, requiring the VAL system to be used for both frequently active ‘open-vent’ volcanoes, and reawakening ‘closed-vent’ volcanoes. Furthermore, New Zealand’s volcanoes are situated in a variety of risk settings ranging from the Auckland Volcanic Field, which lies beneath a city of 1.4 million people; to Mt. Ruapehu, the location of popular ski fields that are occasionally impacted by ballistics and lahars, and produces tephra that falls in distant cities. These wide-ranging characteristics and their impact on society provide opportunities to learn from New Zealand’s experience with VAL systems, and the adoption of a standardised single VAL system for all of New Zealand’s volcanoes following a review in 2014. This chapter outlines the results of qualitative research conducted in 2010–2014 with key stakeholders and scientists, including from the volcano observatory at GNS Science, to ensure that the resulting standardised VAL system is an effective communication tool. A number of difficulties were faced in revising the VAL system so that it remains effective for all of the volcanic settings that exist in New Zealand. If warning products are standardised too much, end-user decision making and action can be limited when unusual situations occur, e.g., there may be loss of specific relevance in the alert message. Specific decision-making should be based on more specific parameters than the VAL alone, however wider VAL system standardisation can increase credibility, a known requirement for effective warning, by ensuring that warning sources are clear, trusted and widely understood. With a credible source, user groups are less likely to look for alternatives or confirmation, leading to faster action. Here we consider volcanic warnings within the wider concept of end-to-end multi-hazard early warning systems including detection, evaluation, notification, decision-making and action elements (based on Carsell et al. 2004)

Genetic characterisation of farmed rainbow trout in Norway: intra- and inter-strain variation reveals potential for identification of escapees

<p>Abstract</p> <p>Background</p> <p>The rainbow trout (<it>Oncorhynchus mykiss</it>) is one of the most important aquaculture species in the world, and Norway is one of the largest producers. The present study was initiated in response to a request from the Norwegian police authority to identify the farm of origin for 35 escaped rainbow trout captured in a fjord. Eleven samples, each consisting of approximately 47 fish, were collected from the three farms operating in the fjord where the escapees were captured. In order to gain a better general understanding of the genetic structure of rainbow trout strains used in Norwegian aquaculture, seven samples (47 fish per sample) were collected from six farms located outside the region where the escapees were captured. All samples, including the escapees, were genotyped with 12 microsatellite loci.</p> <p>Results</p> <p>All samples displayed considerable genetic variability at all loci (mean number of alleles per locus per sample ranged from 5.4–8.6). Variable degrees of genetic differentiation were observed among the samples, with pair-wise <it>F</it>_STvalues ranging from 0–0.127. Self-assignment tests conducted among the samples collected from farms outside the fjord where the escapees were observed gave an overall correct assignment of 82.5%, demonstrating potential for genetic identification of escapees. In the "real life" assignment of the 35 captured escapees, all were excluded from two of the samples included as controls in the analysis, and 26 were excluded from the third control sample. In contrast, only 1 of the escapees was excluded from the 11 pooled samples collected on the 3 farms operating in the fjord.</p> <p>Conclusion</p> <p>Considerable genetic variation exists within and among rainbow trout strains farmed in Norway. Together with modern statistical methods, this will provide commercial operators with a tool to monitor breeding and fish movements, and management authorities with the ability to identify the source of escapees. The data generated in this study were used by the Norwegian police to initiate an investigation of the company operating the three farms in the fjord where escapees were observed.</p

Loneliness, social support and cardiovascular reactivity to laboratory stress

Self-reported or explicit loneliness and social support have been inconsistently associated with cardiovascular reactivity (CVR) to stress. The present study aimed to adapt an implicit measure of loneliness, and use it alongside the measures of explicit loneliness and social support, to investigate their correlations with CVR to laboratory stress. Twenty-five female volunteers aged between 18 and 39 years completed self-reported measures of loneliness and social support, and an Implicit Association Test (IAT) of loneliness. The systolic blood pressure (SBP), diastolic blood pressure (DBP) and heart rate (HR) reactivity indices were measured in response to psychosocial stress induced in the laboratory. Functional support indices of social support were significantly correlated with CVR reactivity to stress. Interestingly, implicit, but not explicit, loneliness was significantly correlated with DBP reactivity after one of the stressors. No associations were found between structural support and CVR indices. Results are discussed in terms of validity of implicit versus explicit measures and possible factors that affect physiological outcomes

Sequence comparison of prefrontal cortical brain transcriptome from a tame and an aggressive silver fox (Vulpes vulpes)

<p>Abstract</p> <p>Background</p> <p>Two strains of the silver fox (<it>Vulpes vulpes</it>), with markedly different behavioral phenotypes, have been developed by long-term selection for behavior. Foxes from the tame strain exhibit friendly behavior towards humans, paralleling the sociability of canine puppies, whereas foxes from the aggressive strain are defensive and exhibit aggression to humans. To understand the genetic differences underlying these behavioral phenotypes fox-specific genomic resources are needed.</p> <p>Results</p> <p>cDNA from mRNA from pre-frontal cortex of a tame and an aggressive fox was sequenced using the Roche 454 FLX Titanium platform (> 2.5 million reads & 0.9 Gbase of tame fox sequence; >3.3 million reads & 1.2 Gbase of aggressive fox sequence). Over 80% of the fox reads were assembled into contigs. Mapping fox reads against the fox transcriptome assembly and the dog genome identified over 30,000 high confidence fox-specific SNPs. Fox transcripts for approximately 14,000 genes were identified using SwissProt and the dog RefSeq databases. An at least 2-fold expression difference between the two samples (p < 0.05) was observed for 335 genes, fewer than 3% of the total number of genes identified in the fox transcriptome.</p> <p>Conclusions</p> <p>Transcriptome sequencing significantly expanded genomic resources available for the fox, a species without a sequenced genome. In a very cost efficient manner this yielded a large number of fox-specific SNP markers for genetic studies and provided significant insights into the gene expression profile of the fox pre-frontal cortex; expression differences between the two fox samples; and a catalogue of potentially important gene-specific sequence variants. This result demonstrates the utility of this approach for developing genomic resources in species with limited genomic information.</p

At-Risk and Recent-Onset Type 1 Diabetic Subjects Have Increased Apoptosis in the CD4+CD25+(high) T-Cell Fraction

BACKGROUND: In experimental models, Type 1 diabetes T1D can be prevented by adoptive transfer of CD4+CD25+ FoxP3+ suppressor or regulatory T cells. Recent studies have found a suppression defect of CD4+CD25+(high) T cells in human disease. In this study we measure apoptosis of CD4+CD25+(high) T cells to see if it could contribute to reduced suppressive activity of these cells. METHODS AND FINDINGS: T-cell apoptosis was evaluated in children and adolescent 35 females/40 males subjects comprising recent-onset and long-standing T1D subjects and their first-degree relatives, who are at variable risk to develop T1D. YOPRO1/7AAD and intracellular staining of the active form of caspase 3 were used to evaluate apoptosis. Isolated CD4+CD25+(high) and CD4+CD25− T cells were co-cultured in a suppression assay to assess the function of the former cells. We found that recent-onset T1D subjects show increased apoptosis of CD4+CD25+(high) T cells when compared to both control and long-standing T1D subjects p<0.0001 for both groups. Subjects at high risk for developing T1D 2–3Ab+ve show a similar trend p<0.02 and p<0.01, respectively. On the contrary, in long-standing T1D and T2D subjects, CD4+CD25+(high) T cell apoptosis is at the same level as in control subjects p = NS. Simultaneous intracellular staining of the active form of caspase 3 and FoxP3 confirmed recent-onset FoxP3+ve CD4+CD25+(high) T cells committed to apoptosis at a higher percentage 15.3±2.2 compared to FoxP3+ve CD4+CD25+(high) T cells in control subjects 6.1±1.7 p<0.002. Compared to control subjects, both recent-onset T1D and high at-risk subjects had significantly decreased function of CD4+CD25+(high) T cells p = 0.0007 and p = 0.007, respectively. CONCLUSIONS: There is a higher level of ongoing apoptosis in CD4+CD25+(high) T cells in recent-onset T1D subjects and in subjects at high risk for the disease. This high level of CD4+CD25+(high) T-cell apoptosis could be a contributing factor to markedly decreased suppressive potential of these cells in recent-onset T1D subjects

Glial Hsp70 Protects K+ Homeostasis in the Drosophila Brain during Repetitive Anoxic Depolarization

Neural tissue is particularly vulnerable to metabolic stress and loss of ion homeostasis. Repetitive stress generally leads to more permanent dysfunction but the mechanisms underlying this progression are poorly understood. We investigated the effects of energetic compromise in Drosophila by targeting the Na+/K+-ATPase. Acute ouabain treatment of intact flies resulted in subsequent repetitive comas that led to death and were associated with transient loss of K+ homeostasis in the brain. Heat shock pre-conditioned flies were resistant to ouabain treatment. To control the timing of repeated loss of ion homeostasis we subjected flies to repetitive anoxia while recording extracellular [K+] in the brain. We show that targeted expression of the chaperone protein Hsp70 in glial cells delays a permanent loss of ion homeostasis associated with repetitive anoxic stress and suggest that this is a useful model for investigating molecular mechanisms of neuroprotection

Cardiovascular inflammation in healthy women: multilevel associations with state-level prosperity, productivity and income inequality

<p>Abstract</p> <p>Background</p> <p>Cardiovascular inflammation is a key contributor to the development of atherosclerosis and the prediction of cardiovascular events among healthy women. An emerging literature suggests biomarkers of inflammation vary by geography of residence at the state-level, and are associated with individual-level socioeconomic status. Associations between cardiovascular inflammation and state-level socioeconomic conditions have not been evaluated. The study objective is to estimate whether there are independent associations between state-level socioeconomic conditions and individual-level biomarkers of inflammation, in excess of individual-level income and clinical covariates among healthy women.</p> <p>Methods</p> <p>The authors examined cross-sectional multilevel associations among state-level socioeconomic conditions, individual-level income, and biomarkers of inflammation among women (n = 26,029) in the Women's Health Study, a nation-wide cohort of healthy women free of cardiovascular diseases at enrollment. High sensitivity C-reactive protein (hsCRP), soluble intercellular adhesion molecule-1 (sICAM-1) and fibrinogen were measured between 1993 and 1996. Biomarker levels were examined among women within quartiles of state-level socioeconomic conditions and within categories of individual-level income.</p> <p>Results</p> <p>The authors found that favorable state-level socioeconomic conditions were correlated with lower hsCRP, in excess of individual-level income (e.g. state-level real per capital gross domestic product fixed effect standardized Βeta coefficient [Std B] -0.03, 95% CI -0.05, -0.004). Individual-level income was more closely associated with sICAM-1 (Std B -0.04, 95% CI -0.06, -0.03) and fibrinogen (Std B -0.05, 95% CI -0.06, -0.03) than state-level conditions.</p> <p>Conclusions</p> <p>We found associations between state-level socioeconomic conditions and hsCRP among healthy women. Personal household income was more closely associated with sICAM-1 and fibrinogen than state-level socioeconomic conditions. Additional research should examine these associations in other cohorts, and investigate what more-advantaged states do differently than less-advantaged states that may influence levels of cardiovascular inflammation among healthy women.</p

Partial Regulatory T Cell Depletion Prior to Acute Feline Immunodeficiency Virus Infection Does Not Alter Disease Pathogenesis

Feline immunodeficiency virus (FIV) infection in cats follows a disease course similar to HIV-1, including a short acute phase characterized by high viremia, and a prolonged asymptomatic phase characterized by low viremia and generalized immune dysfunction. CD4+CD25hiFoxP3+ immunosuppressive regulatory T (Treg) cells have been implicated as a possible cause of immune dysfunction during FIV and HIV-1 infection, as they are capable of modulating virus-specific and inflammatory immune responses. Additionally, the immunosuppressive capacity of feline Treg cells has been shown to be increased during FIV infection. We have previously shown that transient in vivo Treg cell depletion during asymptomatic FIV infection reveals FIV-specific immune responses suppressed by Treg cells. In this study, we sought to determine the immunological influence of Treg cells during acute FIV infection. We asked whether Treg cell depletion prior to infection with the highly pathogenic molecular clone FIV-C36 in cats could alter FIV pathogenesis. We report here that partial Treg cell depletion prior to FIV infection does not significantly change provirus, viremia, or CD4+ T cell levels in blood and lymphoid tissues during the acute phase of disease. The effects of anti-CD25 mAb treatment are truncated in cats acutely infected with FIV-C36 as compared to chronically infected cats or FIV-naïve cats, as Treg cell levels were heightened in all treatment groups included in the study within two weeks post-FIV infection. Our findings suggest that the influence of Treg cell suppression during FIV pathogenesis is most prominent after Treg cells are activated in the environment of established FIV infection