Relative importance rank of species based on proportions of viewing and the availability of large mammal species in Shamwari Private Game Reserve, based on the Johnson Method [32].

<p><i>*</i>Extralimital species, species which historically did not occur on Shamwari and have been introduced there.</p

Understanding Tourists’ Preference for Mammal Species in Private Protected Areas: Is There a Case for Extralimital Species for Ecotourism?

<div><p>Private Protected Areas (PPAs) often use wildlife-based ecotourism as their primary means of generating business. Achieving tourist satisfaction has become a strong driving goal in the management of many PPAs, often at the expense of biodiversity. Many extralimitral species, those which historically did not occur in an area, are stocked in PPAs with the intention of increasing ecotourism attractions. Even though the ecological and economic costs of stocking these species are high, the social benefits are not understood and little information exists globally on the ecotourism role of extralimital species. This study assessed the value of stocking extralimital species using questionnaire-based surveys and observing tourists in Shamwari Private Game Reserve in the Eastern Cape Province of South Africa. No difference was found between indigenous and extralimital species with regards to the tourists’ weighted scoring system, average amount tourists were willing to pay, total viewing time, average viewing time or the likelihood of stopping to view species when encountered on game drives. During game drives a strong preference was found for the elephant (<i>Loxodonta africana</i>), lion (<i>Panthera leo</i>), leopard (<i>Panthera pardus</i>) and cheetah (<i>Acynonix jubatus</i>). With the exception of the cheetah, these species are all members of the “big five” and are indigenous. Species availability and visibility, however, may influence the amount of time tourists spend at an animal sighting. Our analysis suggests that certain extralimital species (typically larger and charismatic species) contribute to tourist satisfaction, while particularly the smaller extralimital species add little to the game viewing experience, but add to the costs and risks of the PPAs. We recommend that extralimital species introductions for ecotourism purposes should be approached with caution with regards to the risks to the sustainability of PPAs.</p></div

Proportion of total time spent viewing indigenous (black bars) and extralimital species (white bars) on game drives in Shamwari Private Game Reserve.

<p>Proportion of total time spent viewing indigenous (black bars) and extralimital species (white bars) on game drives in Shamwari Private Game Reserve.</p

The most preferred large mammal species to see according to questionnaires issued to tourists at Shamwari Private Game Reserve, ranked according to weighted scores [24].

<p>*Extralimital species to Shamwari Private Game Reserve.</p

Relationship between the likelihood of stopping to view a species and average time spent viewing indigenous species on game drives at Shamwari Private Game Reserve.

<p>Average of all species indicated by dashed horizontal (time) and vertical (likelihood) lines.</p

The location of Shamwari Private Game Reserve, in the Eastern Cape Province of South Africa, and the different biome types and lodges.

<p>The location of Shamwari Private Game Reserve, in the Eastern Cape Province of South Africa, and the different biome types and lodges.</p

Total number of stops and total viewing time spent on each large mammal species in Shamwari Private Game Reserve, ranked according to viewing time.

<p><i>*</i>Extralimital species, species which historically did not occur there and have been introduced to Shamwari.</p

Annotated picture of the experimental design.

<p>Each patch-joining goat was released from the release point (∼4 m) from each patch. This gave the goats enough time to make a decision on which patch to join based off the dominant status of the patch-holders and the amount of food in the patch. Every goat went straight to a patch and started to feed for two minutes. During this time, no goat switched between trays. If the goat had followed the patterned white arrow, it would have joined the dominant patch-holder. Thus, in the above picture the goat decided to join the subordinate patch-holder.</p

Group-Living Herbivores Weigh Up Food Availability and Dominance Status when Making Patch-Joining Decisions

<div><p>Two key factors that influence the foraging behaviour of group-living herbivores are food availability and individual dominance status. Yet, how the combination of these factors influences the patch-joining decisions of individuals foraging within groups has scarcely been explored. To address this, we focused on the patch-joining decisions of group-living domestic goats (<i>Capra hircus</i>). When individuals were tested against the top four ranked goats of the herd, we found that at patches with low food availability they avoided these dominant patch-holders and only joined subordinates (i.e. costs outweighed benefits). However, as the amount of food increased, the avoidance of the top ranked individuals declined. Specifically, goats shifted and joined the patch of an individual one dominance rank higher than the previous dominant patch holder when the initial quantity of food in the new patch was twice that of the lower ranking individual’s patch (i.e. benefits outweighed costs). In contrast, when individuals chose between patches held by dominant goats, other than the top four ranked goats, and subordinate individuals, we found that they equally joined the dominant and subordinate patch-holders. This joining was irrespective of the dominance gap, absolute rank of the dominant patch-holder, sex or food availability (i.e. benefits outweighed costs). Ultimately, our results highlight that herbivores weigh up the costs and benefits of both food availability and patch-holder dominance status when making patch-joining decisions. Furthermore, as the initial quantity of food increases, food availability becomes more important than dominance with regard to influencing patch-joining decisions.</p></div

Patch-joining goats prefer to feed from the patch containing more food at each food availability combination.

<p>Marginal means (±95% CI) of the proportion of visits to the patch with the highest food availability are plotted. At each food availability combination, there is no overlap with the 0.5 expectation under random visitation, indicating a preference for the patch with the most food.</p