Female athletes and health

It is well documented that regular physical activity has a beneficial effect on human health by affecting the metabolic processes that are of fundamental importance in the body’s functions, such as insulin sensitivity and glucose disposal, as well as lipid and lipoprotein turnover. On the other hand, there is a wealth of studies which indicate that strenuous, regular physical activity, such as that performed by high performance athletes, may be detrimental for the athletes’ health especially in women. This review focuses on the factors that contribute to health problems in female athletes, named the female athlete triad, which includes excessive dieting, menstrual dysfunctions (anovulatory menstrual cycles, oligomenorrhea, amenorrhea) and a low bone mineral density (BMD). As a result of these factors, women who participate in sports, especially those focused on leanness, need special attention and education from health professionals, coaches and the athletes themselves to prevent the detrimental effects of an inadequate energy supply against high energy demands

Index of cardiometabolic risk based on waist circumference (WHT.5R) and metabolic profile in Polish sedentary male and female students

Introduction: This study aimed to evaluate the potential of WHT.5R to determine metabolic risk in Polish college students of both sexes. Material and methods: In all volunteers, body weight, body height, and waist circumference were measured and a waist-to-height ratio 0.5 (WHT.5R) was calculated. Of all volunteers, only those with WHT.5R ≤ 0.726 were included in further procedures (132 males, 162 females). Circulating glucose, insulin, triacylglycerol, total cholesterol, and HDL-cholesterol were determined. Plasma concentrations of non-HDL-cholesterol and HOMA-IR were calculated. Results: In the male group, there was a significantly higher percentage of participants with disturbed lipid profiles, with 20.4% and 28.0% for TC and non-HDL-C, respectively compared to females (13.0% and 9.9%, respectively). No sex-related differences were noted in the percentage of participants with disturbed circulating HDL-C, glucose, and HOMA-IR. Pronounced metabolic disturbances were noted despite WHT.5R values that did not exceed the established cut-off. Conclusions: In the study population, WHT.5R turned out not to be a reliable index of metabolic disturbances and health risks. However, WHT5.R showed sex-related differences in metabolic profile and confirmed lower metabolic risk in female compared to male students

The contribution of paraoxonase 1 and myeloperoxidase to HDL-cholesterol functionality

The purpose of this study was to analyse the scientific evidence concerning the effects of two enzymes – paraoxonase 1 and myeloperoxidase – on the functions of HDL-cholesterol. It is well documented that disturbed circulating lipoproteins (a high total and high LDL-cholesterol, and low HDL-cholesterol) bring about atherosclerosis and an increased risk of cardiovascular disease (CVD) which is recognised as the main cause of death all around the world. In consequence, numerous studies have focused on procedures which will improve the plasma lipoproteins profile by decreasing the total cholesterol and the LDL-cholesterol (LDL-C) and increasing the HDL-cholesterol (HDL-C). However, the anti-atherogenic role of HDL-C has been challenged in studies showing that genetically elevated HDL-cholesterol does not offer protection against CVD. Moreover, it has been found that raising the circulating HDL-cholesterol fails to reduce atherosclerosis. The doubts concerning the protective role of HDL-C have been supported by in vitro studies which indicate that the HDL-C from patients with atherosclerosis does not have a protective action, but does stimulate inflammation and free radical synthesis. The above data suggests that HDL-C, commonly recognised as protective against atherosclerosis, in some circumstances becomes pro-atherogenic, and is thus dysfunctional. Our review focuses on two enzymes – paraoxonase 1 (PON1) and myeloperoxidase (MPO) – which markedly affect the properties of HDL-C and contribute to its anti – or pro-atherogenic activity. Moreover, the effects of the diet and physical activity on PON1 and MPO are summarised with respect to the HDL-C functionality

Normal Levels of TSH Affect the Metabolic Profile Differently in Physically Active Males and Females

Our study was aimed at the evaluation of relationships between thyroid stimulating hormone (TSH) within the normal range and metabolic risk factors (glucose, insulin, HOMA-IR and lipoprotein profile) in physically active male and female students. In 219 students circulating TSH, glucose, insulin and lipoproteins were measured in blood under fasting conditions. Insulin resistance was expressed as HOMA-IR (homeostasis model assessment for insulin resistance). For further procedures 99 males and 97 regularly menstruating females with TSH 0.4–4.0 μIU/ml were accepted. In male students no correlations between circulating TSH, anthropometric and biochemical variables were noted. In females TSH within the normal range was slightly but significantly correlated with the triglyceride (TG) level (p < 0.03). However, step-wise multiple regression analysis revealed that the effect of TSH was small (p < 0.046) in relation to that found for HOMA-IR ( p < 0.0009). No relationships between biochemical variables and normal levels of TSH were noted in male students. However, surprisingly normal range TSH in males was slightly but significantly correlated with the percentage of body fat and this issue needs further studies concerning measurements of different fat depots. The above data suggests that in active females TG synthesis and export from the liver is more sensitive to TSH action than in active male counterparts

Relationships between bone mineral density and new indices of body composition in young, sedentary men and women

Introduction Data concerning the relationship between body fat and BMD are equivocal since both positive and negative effects have been noted. Recently, the index of fat mass (IFM) representing subjects with different body fat and similar lean mass and index of lean mass (ILM) representing subjects with different lean body mass and similar body fat, have been used to evaluate body composition effect on BMD in middle-aged women. This study aimed at determination of ILM and IFM association with BMD in young men and women. Material and Methods A total of 212 university students of Public Health (125 women and 87 men) participated in the study. Body composition was determined by the bioelectrical impedance method (BIA) using BC 418 MA equipment (Tanita Co., Japan). Fat mass and fat free mass were used to calculate ILM and IFM. Bone mineral density was measured on the wrist of the non-dominant hand using the DEXA method and EXA 3000 equipment (HFS Ltd., Korea). BMD was evaluated using Z-score, with values lower than -2.0 indicating inadequate BMD for subject chronological age. Results Exclusively in women, IFM was markedly and positively correlated with Z-score (r=0.366, P<0.001). In both genders, a significant relationship was found between ILM and Z-scores (r=0.420; p<0.001 and r=0.220; p<0.02 in men and women, respectively). Women with lower than median IFM but similar ILM, were characterized by significantly lower Z-scores vs. women with higher IFM (-1.016 vs. -0.512; p<0.001). Irrespective of gender, participants with higher ILM but similar IFM, were characterized by markedly higher Z-score vs. their counterparts with low ILM. Conclusions The use of IFM and ILM in the present study, allowed the observation that in young adults lean body mass was associated with BMD, regardless of gender, while fat mass is significant for bone mineral density only in wome

Calcium, magnesium and phosphorus dietary intake in active and sedentary Polish students

Study aim: To evaluate energy, macronutrient, calcium, magnesium, and phosphate daily intake in young healthy Polish male students. Material and methods: Two hundred and sixteen participants were physical education students engaged in regular physical ac­tivity (about 9 h/week) and were recognized as physically active. One hundred and fourteen students were from other speciali­zations participating in 1.5 h/week gymnastics classes and were recognized as sedentary. Body mass and height were measured using standard medical equipment. Body fat was evaluated from four skinfold measurements. In all subjects daily intake of energy, protein, fat, carbohydrates, calcium, magnesium and phosphate was briefly assessed from 24-hour food records taken over 4 days. Results: The active students’ diet was characterized by significantly higher energy, macronutrient and mineral daily intake. Moreover, calcium to phosphorus and calcium to magnesium ratios in active subjects were higher than in sedentary ones. There was no significant difference between groups in protein or magnesium intake expressed per 1000 kcal. In contrast, daily intake of fat and phosphate expressed per 1000 kcal was significantly lower in the active students vs. sedentary ones (p < 0.001 and p < 0.05 for fat and phosphate, respectively). Active students were characterized by significantly higher carbohydrate and cal­cium intake per 1000 kcal in comparison with their sedentary counterparts (p < 0.001 for both variables). Conclusions: The dietary pattern of active students was found to be slightly but significantly better than that of their sedentary counterparts. However, in both groups it was far from being a healthy one

Body fatness in sedentary and active students with different body mass index

Study aim: Numerous data have indicated that body fat stores undergo complicated regulation by genetic and environmental factors, including physical activity. However, the majority of studies did not take into account this aspect of lifestyle in proposed body fat limits. In this context it seems that a more precise and reliable classification of body fat is provided by the American Council on Exercise (ACE), which distinguishes individuals not only with respect to sex but also activity level