Spawning grounds of Atlantic cod (Gadus morhua) in the North Sea

The protection of spawning fish from anthropogenic impacts requires information on the location, timing, and interannual persistence of spawning aggregations. In this study, generalized additive models were used to predict the spawning habitat of North Sea cod, based on the abundance of spawning fish within three population subareas and nine environmental layers. The length of spawning cod differed among population subareas, consistent with published evidence of maturation differences. In the northeast North Sea (Viking), the peak in the spawning season was estimated to occur after the survey which made the prediction of spawning grounds for this area less certain. Cod were found to prefer areas with temperatures around 5–7°C for spawning and there was a general preference for high salinity waters. Persistence of cod spawning grounds over the study period was related to interannual stability in temperature, with high variability in the use of Southern Bight spawning grounds. As such, cod appear to minimize interannual variability in the initial environmental conditions affecting offspring survival by selecting suitable cold spawning grounds. Seabed conditions also affected spawning distribution with cod selecting coarse sand and avoiding areas of very high tidal flow. The model prediction was compared with the distribution of cod aggregations during the spawning season reported by fishing boats. Seventy per cent of the aggregations was located in areas classified as occasional or recurrent spawning grounds. The predicted distribution confirmed the widespread occurrence of spawning in the North Sea and showed good agreement with recent and past studies of cod egg distribution, suggesting that nearly all major historical areas of spawning still appear in use today. However, the study also found that the recent recovery of spawning-stock biomass was not uniform across the stock, being centred in the northwest subarea

Benthic litter distribution on circalittoral and deep sea bottoms of the southern Bay of Biscay: Analysis of potential drivers

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The macrofauna associated to the bamboo coral Isidella elongata: to what extent the impact on isideidae affects diversification of deep-sea fauna

Macrofauna associated with the bamboo coral Isidella elongata was analysed in the Balearic Basin at depths of 697–1308 m. The diversity of associated macrofauna and the specific associations identified depended on different morphological characteristics of colonies, such as height or density of rami. Species associated with Isidella consisted mainly of sessile fauna, such as cnidarians (the actinian Amphianthus dornhii and the solitary coral Desmophyllum dianthus) and cirripeds (Gibossaverruca sp.). The strongest relationship (commensalism) occurred for the Pontogeneiidae amphipod Dautzenbergia megacheir, living attached to colonies of Isidella and represented by all population stages from adult (oostegal) females and males to juveniles. Species-coral relationships between Dautzenbergia and bamboo corals (Isididae) are plausible. Dautzenbergia spp. showed morphological differences between Atlantic (described by Walker 1897 as “eyes wanting”) and Mediterranean (with well-developed reddish eyes) specimens. This would suggest diversification of this genus, as has been recently suggested for Pleustidae associated with deep gorgonians. The diversity of the macrofaunal community associated with I. elongata was higher in the most mature (larger colonies with higher density) fields found NW of Mallorca, with higher colonies than in other parts of the Mediterranean. This was the only site where Gibossaverruca sp. (a first Mediterranean faunal record) and D. dianthus were collected. These complex associations between macrofauna and deep-water corals may provide arguments to protect these fragile ecosystems as a source of faunal diversity and diversification.Versión del editor3,87

Environmental requirements for three sea pen species: relevance to distribution and conservation

The aim is to determine the environmental requirements, estimate the extent of suitable habitat for three sea pen species, and assess the implications for marine protected areas (MPAs). The sea pen Funiculina quadrangularis and the habitat associated with two further sea pen species, Virgularia mirabilis and Pennatula phosphorea, are of key conservation importance and are recommended for protection within MPAs. This study models their potential distributions using the MAXimum ENTropy algorithm and assesses these in relation to five possible marine protected areas (pMPAs) proposed for Scottish waters. Metrics relevant to assessing the efficacy of MPAs are also presented. Four environmental variables of prime importance for predicting the presence of all three species of sea pen were identified: mud, minimum salinity, depth, and gravel. The habitat suitability index increased with mud content. The modelled distribution of F. quadrangularis indicated a deeper distribution than V. mirabilis or P. phosphorea and was not present in sediment with gravel content above 30%. Pennatula phosphorea had the smallest area of suitable habitat, while V. mirabilis had the largest. The percentage predicted suitable area for each species that was encompassed by the five pMPAs ranged from 11% for F. quadrangularis to 15% for P. phosphorea. Some of the largest areas predicted as suitable for F. quadrangularis lay outside the pMPAs. The model results indicated differences in the environmental requirements of the three species of sea pen that can be linked to the autecology of each species. Patch sizes, calculated from a binary output of the model, were used to estimate the degree of habitat fragmentation, thereby giving a partial assessment of the adequacy criterion for these pMPAs. The results suggest that potential MPAs within the study area cover sizeable areas of potential sea pen habitat. However, further areas suitable for F. quadrangularis could be considered

Fisheries-based approach to disentangle mackerel (Scomber scombrus) migration in the Cantabrian Sea

Mackerel is an important commercial pelagic species present in the western and eastern North Atlantic. The Northeast Atlantic Mackerel (NEAM) stock has its southernmost spawning area mainly located western Iberian Peninsula and southern Biscay. This species performs extensive annual migrations. The present study is focused on the distribution of this species along the Cantabrian Sea, an essential area of the South Spawning Component (SSC), and the environmental drivers that can affect its migration phenology. We have used data from Vessel Monitoring System and Logbooks of the hand line fishery to estimate the catch per unit of effort (CPUE) as a proxy of its distribution and abundance. CPUEs data of fisheries targeting NEAM provided us with a tool to discriminate the most important predictors for both its prespawning and the postspawning behavior. Among the drivers that can affect mackerel migration, we have analyzed wind speed and direction, temperature at surface (SST) and at 200 m depth, chlorophyll a, mixed layer depth, upwelling intensity, and the most representative geographical variables: depth, slope of the seafloor, and distance to coast. We used generalize additive models to highlight the predictors most closely related to the phenology of the species and to shape the spatial–temporal abundance of NEAM in the southern Bay of Biscay waters. Temperature and wind speed and direction are the most important factors that affect prespawning and postspawning migration of NEAM SSC and shape its niche tracking leading to a gradual advance of the spawning season.Postprint2,04

Distribution models of deep-sea elasmobranchs in the Azores, Mid-Atlantic Ridge, to inform spatial planning

Elasmobranchs inhabiting depths beyond 200 m are extremely susceptible to overexploitation but are extracted by fisheries around the world either as target species or as bycatch. There is little information available to formulate management strategies to reduce elasmobranch-fishery interactions in the deep sea. In European Union waters, prohibiting the catches of deep-sea elasmobranchs has provided the necessary impetus to study by-catch avoidance of these threatened species. We used over 20 years of fisheries-independent and fisheries-dependent data to model the spatial distribution of 15 species of deep-sea elasmobranchs (12 sharks and 3 rays) captured frequently in the Exclusive Economic Zone of the Azores Archipelago (Mid-Atlantic Ridge) to explore spatial management to reduce unwanted catches of these species. We applied Generalised Additive Models to predict the probability of presence of 15 species, as well as the abundance of 6 of those species, within the Azores EEZ and neighbouring seamounts (up to 2000 m depth), using environmental and operational variables as predictors. Our results identified that depth is most influential in determining the distribution of these sharks and rays, in addition to seafloor topography. Distinctive bathymetric features such as seamounts and ridges were highlighted as areas where the probability of presence of the greatest number of species overlapped. Although not related to habitat, gear type influenced the capture probability of certain species, with the artisanal handline, gorazeira, having lower captures than bottom longline. Our results support using depth-based, area-based, and gear-based tactics to design management measures to reduce elasmobranch bycatch, for more sustainable deep-sea fisheries.Postprint2,42

Determining and mapping species sensitivity to trawling impacts: the BEnthos Sensitivity Index to Trawling Operations (BESITO)

Applying an ecosystem approach requires a deep and holistic understanding of interactions between human activities and ecosystems. Bottom trawling is the most widespread physical human disturbance in the seabed and produces a wide range of direct and indirect impacts on benthic ecosystems. In this work, we develop a new index, the BEnthos Sensitivity Index to Trawling Operations (BESITO), using biological traits to classify species according to their sensitivity to bottom trawling. Seventy-nine different benthic taxa were classified according to their BESITO scores in three groups. The effect of trawling on the relative abundance of each group (measured as biomass proportion) was analysed using General Additive Models (GAMs) in a distribution model framework. The distribution of the relative biomass of each group was mapped and the impact of trawling was computed. Species with the lowest BESITO score (group I) showed a positive response to trawling disturbance (opportunistic response) whereas species with values higher than 2 (group III) showed a negative response (sensitive response). Species with a BESITO score of 2 did not show a significant response to the pressure (tolerant response). Trawling disturbance reduced relative biomass of sensitive species by 31% across the study area. This value increased to 46% when shelf-break was considered in isolation and reached values of 59.6% in the most impacted habitat (deep-sea muddy sands). The new index classified successfully the analysed species according to their sensitivity to trawling allowing modeling the impact of trawling disturbance on sensitive species, without the masking effect of opposed responses

Mapping habitat loss in the deep-sea using current and past presences of Isidella elongata (Cnidaria: Alcyonacea)

The bamboo coral Isidella elongata is an engineering species that forms a characteristic biogenic habitat in the bathyal mud of the Mediterranean Sea. This habitat has been severely reduced in recent decades due to trawling impacts, and there is a growing concern about its conservation status. In this work, the habitat loss of I. elongata was computed using a novel approach that combines the realized niche of the species with the estimation of its past distribution (before trawling) to delineate potential areas of habitat loss with different levels of uncertainty. The realized niche of the species was modelled using only live colonies and including trawling effort as explanatory variable whereas the past distribution was estimated also using the leftovers of dead colonies as presences. Trawling effort had a statistically significant negative effect on the extent of the realized niche of I. elongata, confirming previous results on the impact of this pressure on its distribution. The novel approach used in this work has allowed us to map for the first time several areas of potential habitat loss for I. elongata in the studied area, opening new opportunities to provide this essential information for future management and restoration actions of vulnerable marine ecosystems worldwide.Versión del editor2,27

Spatial assessment of benthic habitats vulnerability to bottom fishing in a Mediterranean seamount

Physical damage caused by the mechanical impact of bottom fishing gears on epibenthic community can reduce the biomass and coverage of habitat-forming species as well as the richness and diversity of the rest of the associated community. A practical development of a methodology for spatially assessing the potential degree of disturbance that benthic habitats suffered as a consequence of trawling and long-lining was carried out using a seamount located within a marine Natura 2000 site in the western Mediterranean as a case of study. By jointly assessing the extent of the impact and mapping the sensitivity of all the habitats to these fishing activities, vulnerability and disturbance per benthic habitat and pressure type was evaluated. Habitat sensitivity and fishing effort were combined using a disturbance matrix which categorize grid cells in 9 different levels of disturbance. Additionally, different thresholds of probability of presence of the different habitats obtained from distribution models were used to identify priority conservation and potential recovery. Around 50% of the area was disturbed by fishing and all habitats, both biogenic and non-biogenic, were subjected to fishing. Most of the trawling effort was carried out on soft bathyal substrates while the percentage of longlining effort carried out on hard bottoms was relatively higher than for trawling. Biogenic habitats showed significantly greater sensitivity to both trawling and longlining than non-biogenic habitats. Disturbed, priority conservation and potential recovery areas were identified and mapped in order to inform marine spatial planning.En prensa1,86