Possibilities of Application of Armeo Devices in Treatment of Dyspraxia and Graphomotor Dysgraphia

Armeo (Hocoma) device is projected to help persons with hemiparesis, so they can use remained neuromuscular control for practicing and strengthen movements of arm and function of catching. After experienced stroke, traumatic brain injury, or other neurological or muscular damages, large numbers of patients still do not have neuromuscular control in hemiparetic extremity. Because of the weakness of muscles and inability to conquer with gravity, usage of arm is disabled. Armeo neutralizes weight of arm, enable usage of remaining control in both arms and hands by following exercises which represent real life situations in 3D simulations. Experience of success during (re)habilitation encourages patients to put more effort, and follow instructions of therapists. Software accepts trajectory of patient’s arm and wrist movement and with that enables therapists to evaluate patient’s pattern of coordination and improvement during treatment. Device is easily adaptable to patient’s needs and it is possible to be used also without help of therapist. Armeo speeds up re(habilitation) by combining adaptable support for arm with grabber which is very sensitive and stimulates everyday activities. Data’s for every patient can be electronically archived, which enables evaluation and follow up of improvements in treatment. Application of Aremo in situations with head injuries described till now can be widen, for the first time by our opinion, on application of Armeo in habilitation and early stimulant treatment in children with graphomotor dysgraphia, dyspraxia, cerebral paralysis (CP), autism and intellectual disorders, with respect to hypotonic muscular hand and inadequate coordination. By seasonable application of this device in treatment of these children, their hand and arm motoric can be improved, which would definitely affect quality of their everyday activities and ability to learn and carry out school tasks

Learning difficulties: theories and new evidences

Smetnje u učenju podrazumevaju deficite kognitivne obrade a zbog heterogenosti koja je određena njihovom fenomenologijom, eksplicitno se dele na verbalne (disleksija, disgrafija, diskalkulija) i neverbalne smetnje učenja (sindrom NSU, hiperfokusiranost pažnje, neke dispraksije ili vizuoprostorni deficiti), dok implicitno obuhvataju i neke bihevioralne poremećaje (kao što su pervazivni poremećaji-autizam, poremećaji ponašanja ili hiperkinetski sindrom). Ovaj termin ponekad se koristi i kao oznaka za granične intelektualne sposobnosti bez disharmoničnog razvoja. Specifične smetnje u učenju, specifični su poremećaji i po tome što su parcijalni utoliko da dete i dalje poseduje visok opšti razvojni kapacitet i dovoljno potencijala za tipičan psihosocijalni rast, ne isključujući čak i natprosečne intelektualne sposobnosti, iako se „izolovanost“ smetnji može razlikovati od poremećaja do poremećaja i od deteta do deteta u okviru iste kliničke slike. Specifične smetnje trajno utiču na tok sazrevanja i formiranje ličnosti, pa su ova deca biološki vulnerabilnija za psihološke i neuropsihijatrijske poremećaje. Zbog ne razumevanja roditelja i sredine u kojoj dete živi, u smislu lenjosti i neposlušnosti, potsmeha ili odbacivanja od strane vršnjaka, 40-80% ove dece ima znake afektivnog poremećaja/poremećaja raspoloženja. Neurorazvojni poremećaji /neurokognitivne smetnje, označavaju sve oblike smetnji mentalnog i behvioralnog sazrevanja koje rezultiraju iz strukturnog (makar i diskretnog) cerebralnog oštećenja. Podrazumevaju i pretpostavljenu a ne samo verifikovanu ozledu i ne isključuje tipične psihijatrijske poremećaje, ni poremećaje emocija. ADHD je neurološki, bihevioralni i kognitivni poremećaj. Simptomi nepažnje, hiperaktivnosti i impulsivnost su glavne bihevioralne karakteristike ADHD inkorporirane u dijagnostički sistem sa procenjenom prevalencom od 3% do 5% u školske dece.Learning disability consider deficits of cognitive processing, and because of heterogenity which is defined by their phenomenology, explicitely is divided on verbal (dysphasy, dyslexia, dysgraphy, dyscalculia), and nonverbal learning disabilities (syndrom NSU, hyper-focused attention, some of dyspraxia or visuospacial deficits), while implicitely involve some bihevioral disorders, also (like pervasive disorders-autism, disorders of bihevior and hypercinetical syndorma). Specific learning disabilities are specific disorders because of partiality, so child still have high general developmental capacity and enough potential for typical psycho-social development, and also there are some of them with extremely high IQ, although “isolation” of disabilities can be different from one disorder to another, and from chid to child. Specific disabilities permanently influence on progress in maturation and forming personality, so those children are biologicaly more vulnerable for psychological and neuropsychiatrical disorders. Because of nonunderstanding of parent and environment in which child lives, in terms of laziness and naughtiness, irony and rejection of children of same age, 40-80% of those children have signs of affective disorders/disorders of moode. Neurodivelopmental disorders/neurocognitive disabilities, signifie all forms of mental and bihevioral development disabilities which result from structural (even discrete) cerebral demage. It is considered also assumed, and not only veryfied, injury and typical psychiatrical desorders and emotional disorders also, are not excluded. ADHD is a neurobiologically-based developmental disability estimated to affect between 3-5 percent of the school age population

Starenje osoba sa mentalnom retardacijom

Down syndrome has captured a great deal of interest among researchers concerned about aging i persons with MR/DD because of the increased risk and earlier onset of dementia in this populations. Whereas early researchers sounded an alarm about the inevitability of dementia in people with Down syndrome, based largely on the universal neuropathology evident in this population after age 35 to 40, contemporary investigators have sought to identify risk factors that explain why some older adults with Down syndrome develop clinical symptoms of dementia whereas others do not. Research about aging and Down syndrome has crystallized to the point where it offers valuable implications for clinical practice. We now have a better understanding of risk factors for dementia in this population, the course of the symptoms of dementia as they are expressed in persons with Down syndrome and strategies for assessment and clinical diagnosis. Prospective studies of aging person with mental retardation are needed, where declines from previous levels of functional and cognitive performance are specifically measured. Such studies should provide the most sensitive and accurate index of the development of dementia, information that is necessary to establish risk for dementia in this population.Down-ov sindrom je izazvao veliko interesovanje istraživača koji se bave starenjem osoba sa mentalnom retardacijom MR/DD zbog povećanog rizika i ranije pojave demencije u ovoj populaciji. Dok su prethodni istraživači upozoravali da je pojava demencije kod ljudi sa Down-ovim sindromom neizbežna, što je u velikoj meri zasnovano na pojavi neuropatologije koja je očigledna kod osoba starosti između 35 i 40 godina, današnji istraživači pokušavaju da utvrde faktore rizika koji objašnjavaju zašto neke starije osobe sa Down-ovim sindromom razvijaju kliničke simptome demencije a drugi ne. Istraživanje starenja i Down-ovog sindroma se do te mere iskristalisalo da daje vredne implikacije za kliničku praksu, pa sada bolje razumemo faktore rizika za pojavu demencije u ovoj populaciji, pojavu simptoma demencije i strategije za kliničku procenu i dijagnozu. Do sada je utvrđeno da postoji povećana učestalost pojavljivanja rane demencije Alchajmerovog tipa (DAT) kod ljudi sa Down-ovim sindromom i da postoje varijacije koje se odnose na vreme ispoljavanja kliničkih znakova DAT što se može objasniti postojanjem različitih faktora rizika. Prospektivna istraživanja procesa starenja kod MR osoba, u kojima će pad u odnosu na prethodne nivoe funkcionalnog i kognitivnog postignuća biti precizno izmeren i zabeležen obezbedila bi najosetljivije i najpreciznije pokazatelje razvoja demencije, tj. neophodne informacije za utvrđivanje rizika za demenciju u ovoj populaciji

Analysis and synthesis of Phonemes in preschool children

Cilj ovog istraživanja je utvrđivanje karakteristika analize i sinteze gla- sova kod dece predškolskog uzrasta. Ispitivani uzorak čini šezdesetoro dece, uzrasta od šest do sedam godina. Za procenu sposobnosti analize i sinteze gla- sova kod dece primenjen je Test glasovne analize i sinteze u rečima (Radičević i Marinković, 1993). Rezultati na zadacima analize glasova pokazuju da su deca najuspešnija na zadacima određivanja prvog, drugog i poslednjeg glasa u rečima, dok je najmanji uspeh ostvaren na zadacima segmentacije glasova. Sa druge stra- ne, uspešnost dece na zadacima sinteze glasova najveća je na jednosložnim re- čima, a najmanja na rečima od tri i više slogova. Analizom rezultata dece na pojedinačnim zadacima, utvrđeno je da je uspešnost dece veća na zadacima sinte- ze glasova u kraćim rečima, u odnosu na duže reči, nezavisno od frekventnosti reči. Rezultati istraživanja pokazuju da se složeniji zadaci manipulisanja fonemama razvijaju i nakon uzrasta od šest godina.The aim of this research is to determine the characteristics of the analysis and synthesis of phonemes in preschool children. The sample included sixty children, aged six to seven. The Test of Phoneme Analysis and Synthesis in Words was used to assess the children language abilities (Radičević & Marinković, 1993). The results on phoneme analysis tasks show that children are most successful in tasks of determining the first, second and last phoneme in words, while the least success is achieved on the phoneme segmentation task. On the other hand, children’s performance on phoneme synthesis tasks is highest in onesyllable words and lowest in words of three or more syllables. By analyzing children’s achievement on individual tasks, it was found that children’s performance was higher on phoneme synthesis tasks in shorter words, compared to longer words, regardless of word frequency. The results of the study show that complex phoneme manipulation tasks also develop after the age of six.Edukativna i rehabilitaciona podrška detetu, porodici i institucij

Syntactic awareness in children with developmental language disorder: implications for school practice

Apstrakt: Istraživanja razumevanja i produkcije sintaksičkih jedinica kod dece sa razvojnim jezičkim poremećajem ukazuju na prisustvo različitih deficita. S obzirom na nedovoljnu istraženost sintaksičkih sposobnosti kod ove grupe dece na srp- skom govornom području, cilj istraživanja je utvrđivanje karakteristika sintaksičke svesnosti kod dece sa razvojnim jezičkim poremećajem i razmatranje implikacija koje su značajne za školsku praksu. Uzorak je činilo 240 dece uzrasta od pet do sedam i po godina, podeljenih u dve grupe, decu sa razvojnim jezičkim poremećajem i decu tipičnog razvoja. Ispitivanje sintaksičke svesnosti realizovano je uz primenu CELF-4 baterije testova za procenu jezika. Dobijeni rezultati su pokazali da deca sa razvojnim jezičkim poremećajem is- poljavaju značajno više deficita u razumevanju i upotrebi sintaksičkih jedinica u poređenju sa decom tipičnog razvoja. Pored obaveznog uključivanja u tretman poremećaja jezičkih sposobnosti, deci sa razvojnim jezičkim poremećajem potreban je dodatni pod- sticaj na mlađem školskom uzrastu u savladavanju gradiva. Specifične karakteristike govora nastavnika u školskom okruženju identifikovane su kao podsticajne za razvoj jezičkih sposobnosti kod ove grupe dece. Naglasak je na potrebi da nastavnici koriste strategije koje podržavaju razvoj i upotrebu sintaksičkih sposobnosti kod ove grupe dece. Ove strategije se mogu koristiti na više i manje strukturirane načine, prema stepenu razvoja, sposobnostima i potrebama dece.: Research on the comprehension and production of syntactic units in children with developmental language disorders indicates the presence of various deficits. Given the insufficient research on syntactic abilities in this group of children in the Serbianspeaking area, the aim of the research is to determine the characteristics of syntactic awareness in children with developmental language disorder and consider the implications that are significant for school practice. The sample consisted of 240 children aged five to seven and a half, divided into two groups, i.e. children with developmental language disorders and children with typical development. The syntactic awareness test was carried out using the CELF-4 battery of language assessment tests. The obtained results showed that children with a developmental language disorder show significantly more deficits in comprehension and expression of syntactic units compared to children with typical development. In addition to mandatory treatment of language disorders, children with developmental language disorders need additional encouragement in styding at a younger school age. Specific characteristics of teacher’s speech in the school environment have been identified as stimulating for the development of language abilities in this group of children. Emphasis is placed on the need for teachers to use strategies that support the development and use of syntactic abilities in this group of children. These strategies can be used in more or less structured ways, according to children’s level of development, abilities and needs

Phonological awareness, verbal working memory and rapid automatic naming as indicators of vocabulary development in preschool children

Uvod: Prema modelu leksičkog restrukturiranja, razvoj rečnika pokreće razvoj fonoloških reprezentacija. Stoga se može predvideti da će deca sa razvijenim rečnikom posedovati vrlo specifične fonološke reprezentacije reči. Cilj: Cilj istraživanja je da se utvrdi značaj fonološke svesnosti, verbalne radne memorije i brzog automatskog imenovanja kao pokazatelja razvijenosti ekspresivnog i receptivnog rečnika kod dece predškolskog uzrasta. Metode: Istraživanjem je obuhvaćeno 86 dece tipičnog razvoja. Za procenu fonološke svesnosti, verbalne radne memorije, brzog automatskog imenovanja, ekspresivnog i receptivnog rečnika korišćeni su suptestovi koji predstavljaju deo Clinical Evaluation of Language Fundamentals – Fourth Edition baterije. Rezultati: Rezultati istraživanja pokazuju da model koji objedinjuje uzrast, fonološku svesnost, verbalnu radnu memoriju i brzo automatsko imenovanje predviđa 51% varijanse postignuća na zadacima procene ekspresivnog rečnika (F = 7.73, df1 = 2, df2 = 75, p < .001) i 38% varijanse postignuća na zadacima procene receptivnog rečnika (F = 4.65, df1 = 2, df2 = 75, p < .001). U konačnom modelu kao statistički značajni pokazatelji ekspresivnog rečnika ističu se samo zadaci identifikacije i supstitucije fonema, kao i brzo automatsko imenovanje (p < .05). Sa druge strane, kao statistički značajni pokazatelji receptivnog rečnika ističu se analiza i sinteza fonema, verbalna radna memorija i brzo automatsko imenovanje (p < .05). Zaključak: Dobijeni rezultati pokazali su da uzrast, fonološka svesnost, verbalna radna memorija i brzo automatsko imenovanje imaju značajan doprinos u razvoju rečnika kod dece pre formalne obuke čitanja.Introduction. According to the lexical restructuring model, the development of vocabulary initiates the development of phonological representations. Therefore, it can be predicted that children with developed vocabulary will possess very specific phonological representations of words. Aim. The aim of this research was to determine the significance of phonological awareness, verbal working memory, and rapid automatic naming as indicators of the development of expressive and receptive vocabulary in preschool children. Method. The research included 86 children of typical development. For the assessment of phonological awareness, verbal working memory, rapid automatic naming, expressive and receptive vocabulary, the subtests of Clinical Evaluation of Language Fundamentals – Fourth Edition battery were used. Results. The results showed that the model containing age, phonological awareness, verbal working memory, and rapid automatic naming predicted 51% of the achievement variance on expressive vocabulary tasks (F = 7.73, df1 = 2, df2 = 75, p < .001) and 38% of the achievement variance on receptive vocabulary tasks (F = 4.65, df1 = 2, df2 = 75, p < .001). In the final model, only the tasks of phoneme identification, phoneme substitution, and rapid automatic naming (p < .05) stood out as statistically significant indicators of expressive vocabulary. On the other hand, statistically significant indicators of receptive vocabulary included analysis and synthesis of phonemes, verbal working memory, and rapid automatic naming (p < .05). Conclusion. The results showed that age, phonological awareness, verbal working memory, and rapid automatic naming significantly contributed to vocabulary development in children before reading acquisitio

Lexical-semantic processing of nouns in preschool children

The aim of the study is to determine the characteristics of lexical-semantic processing of nouns in children aged five and a half to seven years. The sample consists of 60 children, of which 30 (50%) are boys and 30 (50%) are girls. In relation to age, the sample of children is divided into three age groups with an age interval of six months. In order to research lexical-semantic abilities, the Test of speech development-Testofword definitions and the Semantic test were applied. The results of the study show that preschool children most often produce functional definitions (31%), while the literary and descriptive definitions (18%), as well as logical definitions (17%) are almostequally represented in the answers ofchildren. When analyzing the results of semantic abilities, itwas found that children achieve the best performance on the antonyms task, while the lowest achievement was accomplished within the synonyms task. Only on the antonyms taskstatistically significant differences were identified in achievement between the youngest and middle-aged group, in favor of older children (p < 0.05). Boys and girls show similar tendencies in development of different abilities, measured by overall performance on all tasks, as indicated by the absence of interaction between age and sex factors (p > 0.05). The importance of children's vocabulary development and its impact on school performance has been the subject of many studies. A well-developed vocabulary in children is part of their language competence and contributes to development of adequate communication skills, therefore, the linguistic indicators we used in our study representa significant indicator oflexical-semantic development

Assessment of grammar knowledge of preschool children using TROG test: A preliminary research

The research goal was to identify the characteristics of grammar comprehension abilities in preschool children and to investigate whether certain factors impact the level of acquisition of grammar knowledge among these children. The research was conducted on a sample of 102 children (56 boys and 46 girls), age 4-6. For the purpose of this research, the children were grouped in four groups, with a five-month age interval among them. The Test for the Reception of Grammar (TROG) was used for assessing the acquisition of grammar knowledge. The research results indicate that there are statistically significant differences in the level of acquisition of grammatical abilities relative to children's age (F (3.98)=5.48; p=0.002; ƞ2 =0.14). By analysing the obtained data, we identified statistically significant differences in the achievement on applied tasks between the youngest group of children and other groups, where older children had higher scores (p lt 0.05). On the other hand, no statistically significant differences were identified between boys and girls in terms of achievement (t (100)=-0.968; p=0.335; d=0.22). Contrary to our expectations, no statistically significant differences were observed in the summary score on TROG test relative to mothers' level of education. The research results show that statistically significant differences are present only in the level of achievement of the children whose mothers have high school or college education, to the advantage of mothers with college education (p=0.009). More significant results were obtained in the same variable, where fathers' education is viewed as an impact (F (3.98)=2.90, p=0.039, ƞ2=0.081).Cilj istraživanja je utvrđivanje karakteristika gramatičkih sposobnosti kod dece predškolskog uzrasta, kao i da li određeni faktori utiču na usvojenost gramatičkog znanja kod ove grupe dece. Istraživanje je sprovedeno na uzorku od sto dva deteta (pedeset šest dečaka i četrdeset šest devojčica), uzrasta od četiri do šest godina. Za potrebe istraživanja deca su podeljena u četiri grupe, sa uzrasnim intervalom između grupa od pet meseci. U istraživanju je za procenu usvojenosti gramatičkog znanja korišćen Test razumevanja gramatike - TROG. Rezultati istraživanja pokazuju da postoje statistički značajne razlike u usvojenosti gramatičkih sposobnosti u odnosu na uzrast dece (F (3.98)=5.48; p=0.002; ƞ2 =0.14). Analizom dobijenih rezultata utvrđene su statistički značajne razlike u postignuću na primenjenim zadacima između najmlađe grupe dece i ostalih uzrasnih grupa, u korist starije dece (p lt 0.05). Sa druge strane, nisu utvrđene statistički značajne razlike u postignuću između dečaka i devojčica (t (100)=-0.968; p=0.335; d=0.22). Suprotno našim očekivanjima, nisu utvrđene statistički značajne razlike u sumarnom skoru TROG testa u odnosu na obrazovni nivo majki. Rezultati istraživanja pokazuju da statistički značajne razlike postoje samo između postignuća dece majki sa srednjim i visokim nivoom obrazovanja, u korist visokoobrazovanih majki (p=0.009). Značajnije rezultate uočavamo na istoj varijabli kada kao uticaj posmatramo obrazovanje oca (F (3.98)=2.90, p=0.039, ƞ2=0.081)

Achievements on the numeracy screener in children From Serbia and Canada

The objective of the survey was to verify the hypothesis that children from Serbia and children from Canada differ in their results on the Numeracy Screener test (NST) that correlates with the arithmetic competences of elementary school children. We sampled 105 subjects aged by 8.10 - 9.58, where the group from Serbia included all 27 pupils of a third-grade class from an elementary school in Belgrade and the group from Canada consisted of 78 third-grade pupils from an elementary school from southern Ontario. By applying the NST test (symbolic and non-symbolic subtests), the basic mathematical competences of children were examined. Statistically significant differences were found in favor of the examinees from Serbia on the symbolic subtest, whereas in the results of the nonsymbolic subtest no differences were found between the examinees. Also, within the Serbian sample, no differences were found between girls and boys of the applied instrument. We recommend that future research strive to validate the NST on a larger, and heterogeneous samples of the same-aged children from rural and urban milieus in Serbia, using the following criteria: non-verbal IQ, student’s marks from all teaching subjects during the current school year, evaluation scales for teachers, questionnaires for the parents and the results of the final math test.Cilj istraživanja je provera hipoteze da se deca iz Srbije i deca iz Kanade, razlikuju u postignućima na Numeričkom skrining testu (NST) koji korelira sa aritmetičkim kompetencijama dece u osnovnoj školi. Ukupan uzorak činilo je 105 subjekata starosti između 8,10 i 9,58 godina, pri čemu je grupa iz Srbije obuhvatala 27 učenika trećeg razreda osnovne škole u Beogradu a grupa iz Kanade, 78 učenika trećeg razreda osnovne škole u Ontariju. NST testom ispitane su bazične matema- tičke kompetencije dece u obe zemlje. Utvrđeno je da postoje statistički značajne razlike u postignući- ma na simboličkom subtestu NST testa između ispitanika iz Srbije i ispitanika iz Kanade u korist ispitanika iz Srbije, da ne postoje razlike u postignućima ovih ispitanika na nesimboličkom subtestu i da na uzorku ispitanika iz Srbije, ne postoje razlike u postignućima između dečaka i devojčica, na obe subskale primenjenog instrumenta. Preporuka za dalja istraživanja je validiranje primenjenog instru- menta na većim reprezentativnim i heterogenim uzorcima dece istog uzrasta iz naše populacije, uzimajući u obzir sledeće kriterijume za validiranje: neverbalni IQ, ocene učenika iz svih školskih predmeta tekuće godine, skale procene za učitelja, upitnika za roditelje i rezul- tata zaključnog testa iz matematike

Fonološka svesnost kod dece prvog razreda

Cilj ovog istraživanja bio je da se utvrdi fonološka svesnost kod dece prvog razreda. Istraživanje je realizovano tokom aprila meseca 2018. godine u OŠ „Isidora Sekulić“ u Beogradu. U istraživanje je uključeno 60 dece, od čega 32 dečaka (53%) i 28 devojčica (47%), uzrasta između sedam godina i osam godina i tri meseca, koji su prema uzrastu podeljeni u tri grupe: sedam godina (N=18), sedam i po godina (N=20) i osam godina (N=22 dece). Za procenu fonološke svesnosti korišćen je Test fonološke svesnosti-FONT test (Subotić, 2011). Rezultati pokazuju da deca najviše prosečne vrednosti ostvaruju na sledećim tipovima zadataka: spajanje slogova (100% uspešnosti), identifikovanje početnog fonema (93.6% uspešnosti) i fonemska segmentacija (92.8% uspešnosti). Zadaci prepoznavanja rime (89.6% uspešnosti), identifikovanja završnog fonema (86.1% uspešnosti) i slogovne segmentacije (83.8% uspešnosti) su za decu iz uzorka takođe predstavljali „lakši“ tip zadataka, čemu govori u prilog prosečan broj ostvarenih poena, koji je blizu maksimuma. Najteži tipovi zadataka za decu iz našeg uzorka bili su: fonemska supstitucija (početnog fonema) (82.8% uspešnosti) i eliminacija početnog fonema (80% uspešnosti). Uspešnost dece na „lakšem“ tipu zadataka: identifikovanje početnog fonema i prepoznavanje rime je statistički značajno povezan sa uspehom dece na „težim“ tipovima zadataka koji uključuju fonemsku segmentaciju, eliminaciju i manipulaciju fonemama, čemu govore u prilog visoke vrednosti korelacijske analize. Poredeći uspešnost dečaka i devojčica na zadacima fonološke svesnosti, utvrđeno je da su dečaci i devojčice bili najuspešniji na zadacima spajanja slogova i identifikovanja početnog fonema. Dečaci su bili najmanje uspešni na zadacima eliminacije početnog fonema i slogovne segmentacije, dok su devojčice ostvarile najmanji uspeh na zadacima eliminacije početnog fonema i fonemske supstitucije (početni fonem). Analizom rezultata utvrđeno je da ne postoje statistički značajne razlike u postignuću između dečaka i devojčica na zadacima fonološke svesnosti (p>.05). Ispitivanjem je utvrđeno da nema statistički značajnih razlika u uspešnosti na zadacima fonološke svesnosti u odnosu na uzrast dece (p>.05). Razlike u uspešnosti između dece svih uzrasta najuočljivije su na zadatku fonemske supstitucije (početnog fonema), gde su osmogodišnjaci imali 86.3% uspešnosti, za razliku od dece uzrasta od sedam i po (85% uspešnosti) i sedam godina (70%), bez utvrđivanja statistički značajnih razlika (χ2=16.73; df=10; p>.05). Deci prvog razreda treba više davati zadatke koji podstiču razvoj fonološke svesnosti, koja predstavlja značajan preduslov za uspeh u razvoju sposobnosti čitanja i pisanja