The convergence of radiation and immunogenic cell death signaling pathways.

Ionizing radiation (IR) triggers programmed cell death in tumor cells through a variety of highly regulated processes. Radiation-induced tumor cell death has been studied extensively in vitro and is widely attributed to multiple distinct mechanisms, including apoptosis, necrosis, mitotic catastrophe (MC), autophagy, and senescence, which may occur concurrently. When considering tumor cell death in the context of an organism, an emerging body of evidence suggests there is a reciprocal relationship in which radiation stimulates the immune system, which in turn contributes to tumor cell kill. As a result, traditional measurements of radiation-induced tumor cell death, in vitro, fail to represent the extent of clinically observed responses, including reductions in loco-regional failure rates and improvements in metastases free and overall survival. Hence, understanding the immunological responses to the type of radiation-induced cell death is critical. In this review, the mechanisms of radiation-induced tumor cell death are described, with particular focus on immunogenic cell death (ICD). Strategies combining radiotherapy with specific chemotherapies or immunotherapies capable of inducing a repertoire of cancer specific immunogens might potentiate tumor control not only by enhancing cell kill but also through the induction of a successful anti-tumor vaccination that improves patient survival

MRI-LINAC: A transformative technology in radiation oncology

Advances in radiotherapy technologies have enabled more precise target guidance, improved treatment verification, and greater control and versatility in radiation delivery. Amongst the recent novel technologies, Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) guided radiotherapy (MRgRT) may hold the greatest potential to improve the therapeutic gains of image-guided delivery of radiation dose. The ability of the MRI linear accelerator (LINAC) to image tumors and organs with on-table MRI, to manage organ motion and dose delivery in real-time, and to adapt the radiotherapy plan on the day of treatment while the patient is on the table are major advances relative to current conventional radiation treatments. These advanced techniques demand efficient coordination and communication between members of the treatment team. MRgRT could fundamentally transform the radiotherapy delivery process within radiation oncology centers through the reorganization of the patient and treatment team workflow process. However, the MRgRT technology currently is limited by accessibility due to the cost of capital investment and the time and personnel allocation needed for each fractional treatment and the unclear clinical benefit compared to conventional radiotherapy platforms. As the technology evolves and becomes more widely available, we present the case that MRgRT has the potential to become a widely utilized treatment platform and transform the radiation oncology treatment process just as earlier disruptive radiation therapy technologies have done

Radiation fosters dose-dependent and chemotherapy-induced immunogenic cell death.

Established tumors are typified by an immunosuppresive microenvironment. Countering this naturally occurring phenomenon, emerging evidence suggests that radiation promotes a proimmunogenic milieu within the tumor capable of stimulating host cancer-specific immune responses. Three cryptic immunogenic components of cytotoxic-agent induced cell death-namely, calreticulin cell surface exposure, the release of high mobility group box 1 (HMGB1) protein, and the liberation of ATP-have been previously shown to be critical for dendritic cell (DC) activation and effector T-cell priming. Thus, these immune-mobilizing components commonly presage tumor rejection in response to treatment. We initially set out to address the hypothesis that radiation-induced immunogenic cell death (ICD) is dose-dependent. Next, we hypothesized that radiation would enhance chemotherapy-induced ICD when given concomitantly, as suggested by the favorable clinical outcomes observed in response to analogous concurrent chemoradiation regimens. Thus, we designed an in vitro assay to examine the 3 hallmark features of ICD at clinically relevant doses of radiation. We then tested the immunogenic-death inducing effects of radiation combined with carboplatin or paclitaxel, focusing on these combinations to mimic chemoradiation regimens actually used in clinical trials of early stage triple negative [NCT0128953/NYU-10-01969] and locally advanced [NYU-06209] breast cancer patients, respectively. Despite the obvious limitations of an in vitro model, radiotherapy produced both a dose-dependent induction and chemotherapeutic enhancement of ICD. These findings provide preliminary evidence that ICD stimulated by either high-dose radiotherapy alone, or concurrent chemoradiation regimens, may contribute to the establishment of a peritumoral proimmunogenic milieu

Radiation fosters dose-dependent and chemotherapy-induced immunogenic cell death

Established tumors are typified by an immunosuppresive microenvironment. Countering this naturally occurring phenomenon, emerging evidence suggests that radiation promotes a proimmunogenic milieu within the tumor capable of stimulating host cancer-specific immune responses. Three cryptic immunogenic components of cytotoxic-agent induced cell death—namely, calreticulin cell surface exposure, the release of high mobility group box 1 (HMGB1) protein, and the liberation of ATP—have been previously shown to be critical for dendritic cell (DC) activation and effector T-cell priming. Thus, these immune-mobilizing components commonly presage tumor rejection in response to treatment. We initially set out to address the hypothesis that radiation-induced immunogenic cell death (ICD) is dose-dependent. Next, we hypothesized that radiation would enhance chemotherapy-induced ICD when given concomitantly, as suggested by the favorable clinical outcomes observed in response to analogous concurrent chemoradiation regimens. Thus, we designed an in vitro assay to examine the 3 hallmark features of ICD at clinically relevant doses of radiation. We then tested the immunogenic-death inducing effects of radiation combined with carboplatin or paclitaxel, focusing on these combinations to mimic chemoradiation regimens actually used in clinical trials of early stage triple negative [NCT0128953/NYU-10–01969] and locally advanced [NYU-06209] breast cancer patients, respectively. Despite the obvious limitations of an in vitro model, radiotherapy produced both a dose-dependent induction and chemotherapeutic enhancement of ICD. These findings provide preliminary evidence that ICD stimulated by either high-dose radiotherapy alone, or concurrent chemoradiation regimens, may contribute to the establishment of a peritumoral proimmunogenic milieu