Rôle et régulation du système de recombinaison des ICEs de la famille SXT/R391

Les éléments intégratifs et conjugatifs (ICEs) sont des éléments génétiques mobiles bactériens largement reconnus en tant qu'importants vecteurs de la transmission des gènes de résistance aux antibiotiques. Comme tous les éléments génétiques mobiles, ils participent grandement à la plasticité génomique de leur hôte, en permettant le transfert horizontal de gènes conférant des avantages pour l'adaptation de leur hôte à différentes conditions environnementales. Les ICEs se transfèrent horizontalement par conjugaison, par un mécanisme similaire à celui emprunté par les plasmides conjugatifs. Cependant, au contraire des plasmides, les ICEs ne possèdent pas un intermédiaire circulaire extrachromosomique réplicatif : ils s'intègrent plutôt dans le chromosome de leur hôte par recombinaison site-spécifique, à la manière d'un prophage. Une conséquence de ces deux caractéristiques est qu'ils sont également transmis verticalement lors de la division cellulaire de leur hôte. Lorsque soumis à certaines conditions, les ICEs s'excisent de leur hôte sous forme d'une molécule circulaire qui est le substrat pour leur transfert conjugatif vers un nouvel hôte. Une fois transférée, la molécule de l'ICE est recircularisée et s'intègre dans le chromosome. Les ICEs de la famille SXT/R391 sont largement distribués dans les souches de Vibrio cholerae et dans les ?-protéobactéries apparentées et ont été isolées dans une diversité d'endroits géographiques. Les membres de cette famille comportent un large squelette de gènes conservés qui codent pour leurs fonctions principales d'intégration/excision, de transfert conjugatif et de régulation. À l'intérieur de ce squelette sont retrouvées des régions.variables - dont la nature et les combinaisons diffèrent d'un élément à l'autre - qui codent pour des fonctions accessoires telles les résistances aux antibiotiques. Le patron de combinaisons des régions variables entre différents ICEs a mené à l'hypothèse qu'ils sont soumis à de fréquents échanges de matériel génétique par recombinaison. L'intégration site-spécifique de tous les membres de cette famille dans le même locus chromosomique permet la coexistence de deux ICEs semblables mais non identiques dans la même cellule, ce qui fournit un substrat à la recombinaison inter-ICE et permet la formation d'éléments hybrides. Cette thèse présente l'étude d'un nouveau système de recombinaison homologue identifié dans le squelette des ICEs SXT/R391 et sa participation dans la formation d'ICEs hybrides. Ce système de recombinaison, composé de la recombinase Bet et de l'exonucléase Exo est apparenté au système de recombinaison Red du bactériophage ? et est retrouvé chez tous les membres de la famille SXT/R391. La première portion du projet a visé l'identification des déterminants génétiques impliqués dans la formation d'hybrides. Les résultats obtenus démontrent que les ICEs hybrides peuvent être formés par trois voies différentes : i) Bet/Exo, d'une manière indépendante de RecA, ii) RecA et iii) Bet/Exo et RecA, de manière coopérative. Les résultats démontrent également que l'excision des éléments du chromosome ainsi que leur transfert conjugatif vers une nouvelle cellule ne sont pas nécessaires pour former des hybrides. Cette portion du projet met en évidence que les ICEs de la famille SXT/R391 sont capables de promouvoir leur propre diversité à l'aide du système de recombinaison homologue RecA-indépendant qu'ils codent. La deuxième partie du projet s'est portée sur la régulation de l'expression du système de recombinaison Bet/Exo. Les résultats obtenus démontrent que la transcription des gènes de recombinaison est induite en présence d'agents causant des dommages à l'ADN, par le biais des activateurs de transcription de l'ICE, SetC et SetD. Ces activateurs sont sous le contrôle du répresseur principal SetR, dont la répression est levée par les conditions qui induisent la réponse SOS de l'hôte, et sont responsables de l'expression concertée des gènes d'intégration/excision et de transfert conjugatif. Bien que la transcription des gènes de recombinaison soit fortement induite en présence d'agents induisant la réponse SOS, l'analyse de leur profil traductionnel démontre que leur traduction est fortement régulée. Des atténuateurs de traduction putatifs positionés en amont de Bet et Exo pourraient être responsables de ce niveau additionnel de régulation. L'analyse de l'organisation génétique du locus de recombinaison a mis en évidence que bet et exo font partie d'un opéron polycistronique comprenant 12 autres gènes du squelette conservé des ICEs SXT/R391, dont les fonctions ne sont pas connues. Finalement, une analyse in silico visant à identifier tous les systèmes de recombinaison apparentés au sein des génomes séquencés de bactéries, plasmides et virus a permis de démontrer qu'un nombre important de ces systèmes existent chez une diversité d'espèces bactériennes appartenant à des taxons éloignés. Bien que la majorité de ces systèmes soient codés par des bactériophages, plusieurs sont retrouvés sur des plasmides conjugatifs. L'ensemble des résultats présentés dans cette thèse permet une meilleure compréhension de l'évolution des éléments génétiques mobiles bactériens, et plus particulièrement des éléments intégratifs et conjugatifs de la famille SXT/R391

Mobile Antibiotic Resistance Encoding Elements Promote Their Own Diversity

Integrating conjugative elements (ICEs) are a class of bacterial mobile genetic elements that disseminate via conjugation and then integrate into the host cell genome. The SXT/R391 family of ICEs consists of more than 30 different elements that all share the same integration site in the host chromosome but often encode distinct properties. These elements contribute to the spread of antibiotic resistance genes in several gram-negative bacteria including Vibrio cholerae, the agent of cholera. Here, using comparative analyses of the genomes of several SXT/R391 ICEs, we found evidence that the genomes of these elements have been shaped by inter–ICE recombination. We developed a high throughput semi-quantitative method to explore the genetic determinants involved in hybrid ICE formation. Recombinant ICE formation proved to be relatively frequent, and to depend on host (recA) and ICE (s065 and s066) loci, which can independently and potentially cooperatively mediate hybrid ICE formation. s065 and s066, which are found in all SXT/R391 ICEs, are orthologues of the bacteriophage λ Red recombination genes bet and exo, and the s065/s066 recombination system is the first Red-like recombination pathway to be described in a conjugative element. Neither ICE excision nor conjugative transfer proved to be essential for generation of hybrid ICEs. Instead conjugation facilitates the segregation of hybrids and could provide a means to select for functional recombinant ICEs containing novel combinations of genes conferring resistance to antibiotics. Thus, ICEs promote their own diversity and can yield novel mobile elements capable of disseminating new combinations of antibiotic resistance genes

Comparative ICE Genomics: Insights into the Evolution of the SXT/R391 Family of ICEs

Integrating and conjugative elements (ICEs) are one of the three principal types of self-transmissible mobile genetic elements in bacteria. ICEs, like plasmids, transfer via conjugation; but unlike plasmids and similar to many phages, these elements integrate into and replicate along with the host chromosome. Members of the SXT/R391 family of ICEs have been isolated from several species of gram-negative bacteria, including Vibrio cholerae, the cause of cholera, where they have been important vectors for disseminating genes conferring resistance to antibiotics. Here we developed a plasmid-based system to capture and isolate SXT/R391 ICEs for sequencing. Comparative analyses of the genomes of 13 SXT/R391 ICEs derived from diverse hosts and locations revealed that they contain 52 perfectly syntenic and nearly identical core genes that serve as a scaffold capable of mobilizing an array of variable DNA. Furthermore, selection pressure to maintain ICE mobility appears to have restricted insertions of variable DNA into intergenic sites that do not interrupt core functions. The variable genes confer diverse element-specific phenotypes, such as resistance to antibiotics. Functional analysis of a set of deletion mutants revealed that less than half of the conserved core genes are required for ICE mobility; the functions of most of the dispensable core genes are unknown. Several lines of evidence suggest that there has been extensive recombination between SXT/R391 ICEs, resulting in re-assortment of their respective variable gene content. Furthermore, our analyses suggest that there may be a network of phylogenetic relationships among sequences found in all types of mobile genetic elements

Lysogeny in Streptococcus pneumoniae

Bacterial viruses, or bacteriophages, are major contributors to the evolution, pathogenesis and overall biology of their host bacteria. During their life cycle, temperate bacteriophages form stable associations with their host by integrating into the chromosome, a process called lysogeny. Isolates of the human pathogen Streptococcus pneumoniae are frequently lysogenic, and genomic studies have allowed the classification of these phages into distinct phylogenetic groups. Here, we review the recent advances in the characterization of temperate pneumococcal phages, with a focus on their genetic features and chromosomal integration loci. We also discuss the contribution of phages, and specific phage-encoded features, to colonization and virulence. Finally, we discuss interesting research perspectives in this field

Lysogeny in Streptococcus pneumoniae

Bacterial viruses, or bacteriophages, are major contributors to the evolution, pathogenesis and overall biology of their host bacteria. During their life cycle, temperate bacteriophages form stable associations with their host by integrating into the chromosome, a process called lysogeny. Isolates of the human pathogen Streptococcus pneumoniae are frequently lysogenic, and genomic studies have allowed the classification of these phages into distinct phylogenetic groups. Here, we review the recent advances in the characterization of temperate pneumococcal phages, with a focus on their genetic features and chromosomal integration loci. We also discuss the contribution of phages, and specific phage-encoded features, to colonization and virulence. Finally, we discuss interesting research perspectives in this field.Published versio

Multiple Pathways of Genome Plasticity Leading to Development of Antibiotic Resistance

antibiotic

Mobile antibiotic resistance encoding elements promote their own diversity

Integrating conjugative elements (ICEs) are a class of bacterial mobile genetic elements that disseminate via conjugation and then integrate into the host cell genome. The SXT/R391 family of ICEs consists of more than 30 different elements that all share the same integration site in the host chromosome but often encode distinct properties. These elements contribute to the spread of antibiotic resistance genes in several gram-negative bacteria including Vibrio cholerae, the agent of cholera. Here, using comparative analyses of the genomes of several SXT/R391 ICEs, we found evidence that the genomes of these elements have been shaped by inter–ICE recombination. We developed a high throughput semi-quantitative method to explore the genetic determinants involved in hybrid ICE formation. Recombinant ICE formation proved to be relatively frequent, and to depend on host (recA) and ICE (s065 and s066) loci, which can independently and potentially cooperatively mediate hybrid ICE formation. s065 and s066, which are found in all SXT/R391 ICEs, are orthologues of the bacteriophage l Red recombination genes bet and exo, and the s065/s066 recombination system is the first Red-like recombination pathway to be described in a conjugative element. Neither ICE excision nor conjugative transfer proved to be essential for generation of hybrid ICEs. Instead conjugation facilitates the segregation of hybrids and could provide a means to select for functional recombinant ICEs containing novel combinations of genes conferring resistance to antibiotics. Thus, ICEs promote their ow

Autotransporter-Encoding Sequences Are Phylogenetically Distributed among Escherichia coli Clinical Isolates and Reference Strains

Autotransporters are secreted bacterial proteins exhibiting diverse virulence functions. Various autotransporters have been identified among Escherichia coli associated with intestinal or extraintestinal infections; however, the specific distribution of autotransporter sequences among a diversity of E. coli strains has not been investigated. We have validated the use of a multiplex PCR assay to screen for the presence of autotransporter sequences. Herein, we determined the presence of 13 autotransporter sequences and five allelic variants of antigen 43 (Ag43) among 491 E. coli isolates from human urinary tract infections, diarrheagenic E. coli, and avian pathogenic E. coli (APEC) and E. coli reference strains belonging to the ECOR collection. Clinical isolates were also classified into established phylogenetic groups. The results indicated that Ag43 alleles were significantly associated with clinical isolates (93%) compared to commensal isolates (56%) and that agn43K12 was the most common and widely distributed allele. agn43 allelic variants were also phylogenetically distributed. Sequences encoding espC, espP, and sepA and agn43 alleles EDL933 and RS218 were significantly associated with diarrheagenic E. coli strains compared to other groups. tsh was highly associated with APEC strains, whereas sat was absent from APEC. vat, sat, and pic were associated with urinary tract isolates and were identified predominantly in isolates belonging to either group B2 or D of the phylogenetic groups based on the ECOR strain collection. Overall, the results indicate that specific autotransporter sequences are associated with the source and/or phylogenetic background of strains and suggest that, in some cases, autotransporter gene profiles may be useful for comparative analysis of E. coli strains from clinical, food, and environmental sources

Separation of pathogenic bacteria by chain length

Using Deterministic Lateral Displacement devices optimized for sensitivity to particle length, we separate subpopulations of bacteria depending on known properties that affect their capability to cause disease (virulence). For the human bacterial pathogen Streptococcus pneumoniae, bacterial chain length and the presence of a capsule are known virulence factors contributing to its ability to cause severe disease. Separation of cultured pneumococci into subpopulations based on morphological type (single cocci, diplococci and chains) will enable more detailed studies of the role they play in virulence. Moreover, we present separation of mixed populations of almost genetically identical encapsulated and non-encapsulated pneumococcal strains in our device