The seeds of divergence: the economy of French North America, 1688 to 1760

Generally, Canada has been ignored in the literature on the colonial origins of divergence with most of the attention going to the United States. Late nineteenth century estimates of income per capita show that Canada was relatively poorer than the United States and that within Canada, the French and Catholic population of Quebec was considerably poorer. Was this gap long standing? Some evidence has been advanced for earlier periods, but it is quite limited and not well-suited for comparison with other societies. This thesis aims to contribute both to Canadian economic history and to comparative work on inequality across nations during the early modern period. With the use of novel prices and wages from Quebec—which was then the largest settlement in Canada and under French rule—a price index, a series of real wages and a measurement of Gross Domestic Product (GDP) are constructed. They are used to shed light both on the course of economic development until the French were defeated by the British in 1760 and on standards of living in that colony relative to the mother country, France, as well as the American colonies. The work is divided into three components. The first component relates to the construction of a price index. The absence of such an index has been a thorn in the side of Canadian historians as it has limited the ability of historians to obtain real values of wages, output and living standards. This index shows that prices did not follow any trend and remained at a stable level. However, there were episodes of wide swings—mostly due to wars and the monetary experiment of playing card money. The creation of this index lays the foundation of the next component. The second component constructs a standardized real wage series in the form of welfare ratios (a consumption basket divided by nominal wage rate multiplied by length of work year) to compare Canada with France, England and Colonial America. Two measures are derived. The first relies on a “bare bones” definition of consumption with a large share of land-intensive goods. This measure indicates that Canada was poorer than England and Colonial America and not appreciably richer than France. However, this measure overestimates the relative position of Canada to the Old World because of the strong presence of land-intensive goods. A second measure is created using a “respectable” definition of consumption in which the basket includes a larger share of manufactured goods and capital-intensive goods. This second basket better reflects differences in living standards since the abundance of land in Canada (and Colonial America) made it easy to achieve bare subsistence, but the scarcity of capital and skilled labor made the consumption of luxuries and manufactured goods (clothing, lighting, imported goods) highly expensive. With this measure, the advantage of New France over France evaporates and turns slightly negative. In comparison with Britain and Colonial America, the gap widens appreciably. This element is the most important for future research. By showing a reversal because of a shift to a different type of basket, it shows that Old World and New World comparisons are very sensitive to how we measure the cost of living. Furthermore, there are no sustained improvements in living standards over the period regardless of the measure used. Gaps in living standards observed later in the nineteenth century existed as far back as the seventeenth century. In a wider American perspective that includes the Spanish colonies, Canada fares better. The third component computes a new series for Gross Domestic Product (GDP). This is to avoid problems associated with using real wages in the form of welfare ratios which assume a constant labor supply. This assumption is hard to defend in the case of Colonial Canada as there were many signs of increasing industriousness during the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries. The GDP series suggest no long-run trend in living standards (from 1688 to circa 1765). The long peace era of 1713 to 1740 was marked by modest economic growth which offset a steady decline that had started in 1688, but by 1760 (as a result of constant warfare) living standards had sunk below their 1688 levels. These developments are accompanied by observations that suggest that other indicators of living standard declined. The flat-lining of incomes is accompanied by substantial increases in the amount of time worked, rising mortality and rising infant mortality. In addition, comparisons of incomes with the American colonies confirm the results obtained with wages— Canada was considerably poorer. At the end, a long conclusion is provides an exploratory discussion of why Canada would have diverged early on. In structural terms, it is argued that the French colony was plagued by the problem of a small population which prohibited the existence of scale effects. In combination with the fact that it was dispersed throughout the territory, the small population of New France limited the scope for specialization and economies of scale. However, this problem was in part created, and in part aggravated, by institutional factors like seigneurial tenure. The colonial origins of French America’s divergence from the rest of North America are thus partly institutional

Transgenic Citrus Expressing an Arabidopsis NPR1 Gene Exhibit Enhanced Resistance against Huanglongbing (HLB; Citrus Greening).

Commercial sweet orange cultivars lack resistance to Huanglongbing (HLB), a serious phloem limited bacterial disease that is usually fatal. In order to develop sustained disease resistance to HLB, transgenic sweet orange cultivars 'Hamlin' and 'Valencia' expressing an Arabidopsis thaliana NPR1 gene under the control of a constitutive CaMV 35S promoter or a phloem specific Arabidopsis SUC2 (AtSUC2) promoter were produced. Overexpression of AtNPR1 resulted in trees with normal phenotypes that exhibited enhanced resistance to HLB. Phloem specific expression of NPR1 was equally effective for enhancing disease resistance. Transgenic trees exhibited reduced diseased severity and a few lines remained disease-free even after 36 months of planting in a high-disease pressure field site. Expression of the NPR1 gene induced expression of several native genes involved in the plant defense signaling pathways. The AtNPR1 gene being plant derived can serve as a component for the development of an all plant T-DNA derived consumer friendly GM tree

The process of systemic acquired resistance (SAR) induction in citrus.

<p>The process of systemic acquired resistance (SAR) induction in citrus.</p

Southern hybridization analysis of total DNA from leaf tissue of five <i>AtNPR1</i> transformed sweet orange lines (2, 4, 9A, 11A, 18) and a non-transgenic control plant.

<p>Lines denoted with a number are constitutively expressing lines while lines with the suffix ‘A’ are phloem specific lines.</p

Transgene copy number determination using quantitative real-time PCR by comparison of transgenic lines with external plasmid controls.

<p>^A Average values of crossing point from three sample replicates.</p><p>^B Standard deviations.</p><p>^C Average values of extrapolated concentration relative to a single transgene copy.</p><p>^D Copy number.</p><p>^E Plasmid DNA used for copy number calculations</p><p>Transgene copy number determination using quantitative real-time PCR by comparison of transgenic lines with external plasmid controls.</p

Quantification of gene activity using qPCR.

<p>Sequence of primers used in the qPCR process is detailed in <a href="http://www.plosone.org/article/info:doi/10.1371/journal.pone.0137134#pone.0137134.t001" target="_blank">Table 1</a>. Three independent clones were tested from each transgenic line. Total RNA from a non-transgenic plant was also included to verify the accuracy of the amplification process. Selected data from <a href="http://www.plosone.org/article/info:doi/10.1371/journal.pone.0137134#pone.0137134.g004" target="_blank">Fig 4</a> (<i>AtNPR1</i>) is included here for comparison.</p

Quantification of <i>C</i>Las bacterial titers following qPCR from leaf petiole and midribs of the transgenic plants and controls grown under field conditions in a high disease pressure test site.

<p>*; dead trees</p><p>a; only one replicate was PCR positive. Standard errors were calculated from three replicates.</p><p>The mean threshold cycle values (Ct) at specified time intervals are demonstrated.</p

Survival of transgenic plants and control after 1 and 2 years in a no-choice greenhouse evaluation study and exposed to free flying potentially <i>C</i>Las containing psyllids.

<p>Survival of transgenic plants and control after 1 and 2 years in a no-choice greenhouse evaluation study and exposed to free flying potentially <i>C</i>Las containing psyllids.</p