The imaginary audience and the personal fable: A test of Elkind’s theory of adolescent egocentrism

The aim of this research was to test empirically Elkind's (1967, 1970, 1978) Piagetian theoretical formulation for the developmental nature of adolescent egocentrism. The contribution of this study is threefold because it includes: 1) Pubertal development (with a distinction between status and timing), which has been systematically ignored by other investigators; 2) a broad age range (11-18 year-old adolescents); and 3) a variety of manifestations and dimensions of egocentrism. The association of the two main forms of adolescent egocentrism—the imaginary audience and the personal fable—with age, gender, pubertal development, and formal operational thought was investigated. Participants were 314 adolescents who completed the Physical Development Scale (Petersen, Crockett, Richards, & Boxer, 1988), a battery of cognitive tasks (Demetriou, Efklides, & Platsidou, 1993), the Imaginary Audience Scale (Elkind & Bowen, 1979), the New Imaginary Audience Scale (Lapsley, Fitzgerald, Rice, & Jackson, 1989), the Personal Fable Scale (Elkind, personal communication, August 10, 1993), and the New Personal Fable Scale (Lapsley et al., 1989). Findings provided partial support for Elkind's hypothesis. Only the imaginary audience in the form of self-consciousness was associated with grade. Systematic gender differences emerged for several dimensions of imaginary audience and personal fable. For only a few dimensions of imaginary audience and personal fable the expected associations with pubertal and cognitive development, as well as interesting interaction effects, were found. Results are discussed in terms of their implications for Elkind's theory and for alternative interpretations of imaginary audience and personal fable

The imaginary audience and the personal fable in relation to the separation-individuation process during adolescence

Lapsley’s (1993) “New Look” model for the interpretation of adolescent egocentrism, as an alternative to the classic cognitive one formulated by Elkind (1967), was tested in this study. According to the “New Look” model, the two manifestations of adolescent egocentrism – the imaginary audience and the personal fable – are adaptive coping mechanisms used by adolescents in their attempt to deal with the stressful developmental aim of separation-individuation. Two-hundred ninety seven adolescents 11-18 years’ old completed the Imaginary Audience Scale (Elkind & Bowen, 1979), the New Imaginary Audience Scale (Lapsley, Fitzgerald, Rice, & Jackson, 1989), the Personal Fable Scale (Elkind, personal communication, August 10, 1993), the New Personal Fable Scale (Lapsley et al., 1989), and the Separation-Individuation Test of Adolescence (Levine, Green, & Millon, 1986; Levine & Saintonge, 1993). The “New Look” model was generally supported by the data. The various dimensions of separation were significantly associated with the imaginary audience, whereas the dimensions of individuation had stronger links with the personal fable. In addition, some associations were found between the imaginary audience and individuation, as well as between the personal fable and separation. Consistent age and gender differences in the variables studied were found. Results are discussed in the framework of the literature on adolescent egocentrism and on parent-adolescent relations

Exploring friendship quality and the practice of savoring in relation to the wellbeing of Greek adults

Previous research findings demonstrate that both savoring ability and the presence of high-quality friendships play a significant role in enhancing one’s overall sense of wellbeing. However, these associations have not been thoroughly investigated within a diverse range of adults across their lifespans, nor have they been explored in the specific cultural context of Greece. Thus, the primary objective of this study was to delve into the relationships between close friendship quality, the utilization of savoring techniques, and wellbeing within the Greek cultural framework. The study involved 771 adults from Greece with an average age of 38.35 years, who completed the McGill Friendship Functions Questionnaire, the PERMA Profiler, and the Abridged Ways of Savoring Checklist. Results revealed that there exists a positive correlation between friendship quality and savoring strategies with overall wellbeing. Moreover, the study identified a significant association wherein a greater employment of savoring strategies was linked to higher levels of friendship quality. While this study contributes valuable insights, it also has limitations that warrant acknowledgment. Furthermore, suggestions for potential future research directions are proposed, and the implications of these findings are discussed in relation to interventions aimed at enhancing both friendships and the practice of savoring across various contexts

Loneliness: Thoughts on its relationship with psychopathology and psychotherapy

In this paper, we examine the relation of loneliness with psychopathology and psychotherapy. More specifically, first, we present interpretations of the long-standing neglect of loneliness by the disciplines of Psychology and Psychiatry. Next, we analyze psychoanalytic and existential views from the clinical field about the associations between loneliness and psychopathology. We focus on narcissistic trauma and incapacity for love, as accompanying aspects of loneliness in many forms of psychopathology. Also, we discuss the role of loneliness in the psychotherapeutic relationship, according to the aforementioned views. Finally, we propose that we should recognize the paradoxical nature of loneliness, which means that this experience has both distressing and beneficial aspects and that apart from being an inescapable universal condition, it may become an index of psychopathology as well. Abstract in this paper we examine the relation of loneliness with psychopathology and psychotherapy. More specifically, first, we present interpretations about the long-standing neglect of loneliness by the disciplines of Psychology and Psychiatry, such as the dominance of the Cartesian spirit, lack of self-knowledge among a number of therapists, the terrifying, and often incommunicable nature of loneliness, the social stigma inherent in this experience, and the collective denial of loneliness. Next, we analyze psychoanalytic and existential views from the clinical field about the associations between loneliness and psychopathology. in severe psychic disorders, loneliness is an extremely distressing and painful experience, with special features, which are discussed. We refer to the common defense mechanisms for dealing with loneliness. We focus on narcissistic trauma and incapacity for love as accompanying aspects of loneliness in many forms of psychopathology. Also, we discuss the role of loneliness in the psychotherapeutic relationship, according to the aforementioned views. Becoming aware of the narcissistic trauma and the early deprivation which are associated with lack and incompleteness as traits of loneliness, finding an optimal distance between the therapist and the patient, searching for an equilibrium between relatedness and separateness, developing the capacity to tolerate separation and the capacity to be alone in the presence of the other are discussed. Moreover, likely pitfalls in the process of reducing the patient's loneliness as well as loneliness in the therapist are analyzed. Finally, we draw some conclusions emphasizing the acknowledgment and acceptance of loneliness by the therapist and patient, the attribution of meaning to it, and the necessity of binding and social bonding. We propose that we should recognize the paradoxical nature of loneliness, which means that loneliness has both distressing and beneficial aspects and that apart from being an inescapable universal condition, it may become an index of psychopathology as well