Brillouin optical correlation domain analysis in composite material beams

Structural health monitoring is a critical requirement in many composites. Numerous monitoring strategies rely on measurements of temperature or strain (or both), however these are often restricted to point-sensing or to the coverage of small areas. Spatially-continuous data can be obtained with optical fiber sensors. In this work, we report high-resolution distributed Brillouin sensing over standard fibers that are embedded in composite structures. A phase-coded, Brillouin optical correlation domain analysis (B-OCDA) protocol was employed, with spatial resolution of 2 cm and sensitivity of 1 °K or 20 micro-strain. A portable measurement setup was designed and assembled on the premises of a composite structures manufacturer. The setup was successfully utilized in several structural health monitoring scenarios: (a) monitoring the production and curing of a composite beam over 60 h; (b) estimating the stiffness and Young’s modulus of a composite beam; and (c) distributed strain measurements across the surfaces of a model wing of an unmanned aerial vehicle. The measurements are supported by the predictions of structural analysis calculations. The results illustrate the potential added values of high-resolution, distributed Brillouin sensing in the structural health monitoring of composites

Tissue- and Time-Specific Expression of Otherwise Identical tRNA Genes

<div><p>Codon usage bias affects protein translation because tRNAs that recognize synonymous codons differ in their abundance. Although the current dogma states that tRNA expression is exclusively regulated by intrinsic control elements (A- and B-box sequences), we revealed, using a reporter that monitors the levels of individual tRNA genes in <i>Caenorhabditis elegans</i>, that eight tryptophan tRNA genes, 100% identical in sequence, are expressed in different tissues and change their expression dynamically. Furthermore, the expression levels of the <i>sup-7</i> tRNA gene at day 6 were found to predict the animal’s lifespan. We discovered that the expression of tRNAs that reside within introns of protein-coding genes is affected by the host gene’s promoter. Pairing between specific Pol II genes and the tRNAs that are contained in their introns is most likely adaptive, since a genome-wide analysis revealed that the presence of specific intronic tRNAs within specific orthologous genes is conserved across <i>Caenorhabditis</i> species.</p></div

The difference in the PolIII occupancy of intronic and non intronic tRNA genes in <i>C</i>. <i>elegans</i>.

<p>Shown are histograms of PolIII occupancy of young adult worms in intronic (red bars) and non-intronic (blue bars) tRNAs. Occupancy is given in terms of Q-values (-log10 scale). Red bars correspond to intronic tRNAs; blue bars represent non-intronic tRNAs (Wilcoxon rank sum test calculated p-value = 1.31*10⁻⁰⁴).</p

Crossing worms that contain a read-through reporter with tRNA suppressor mutants was used to report tRNA expression.

<p>(A) A schematic representation of the tRNA reporter system. To monitor tRNA expression, we created worms that are homozygous for the <i>sup</i> mutation, the <i>smg-2</i> mutation, and the reporter construct. (B) mCherry expression is a proxy for tRNA levels, and GFP reports the activity of the <i>rps-0</i> promoter. Mixed-stage populations of control worms (no read-through activity) and <i>sup-7</i> mutants are shown.</p

Conservation of the pairing between tRNAs and hosting or neighboring protein-coding genes among nematodes.

<p>Shown are the fractions of conserved genomic architectures in different nematodes in comparison to <i>C</i>. <i>elegans</i>. Each bar denotes the conservation of localization of a given tRNA type (anticodon) with respect to either the tRNA-hosting gene or the adjacent protein-coding genes. Shown are the fractions of conservation of a given anticodon within the transcripts of a specific hosting protein-coding gene (red bars), and the conservation of the adjacent upstream (yellow bars) or downstream (blue bars) protein-coding genes in the vicinity of a given tRNA type (anticodon). The yellow and blue bars were generated based on all the individual tRNA genes that were not localized within the transcripts of protein-coding genes.</p

Differential expression of tryptophan tRNAs in <i>C</i>. <i>elegans</i> throughout time.

<p>(A) Representative images of three tryptophan tRNA reporter strains at various stages and ages. Images were taken under exposure conditions allowing optimal visualization of the expression patterns. (B) Quantification of total worm mCherry fluorescence was normalized to total worm GFP fluorescence, in the tRNA reporter strains, at different stages and ages. Measurements of the fluorescence in the different strains were taken at the same time using the same exposure parameters. Shown are averages of means, ± SEM; three experiments were conducted, N = 30 worms from each strain in each stage per experiment.</p

Tissue-specific expression of tryptophan tRNAs in <i>C</i>. <i>elegans</i>.

<p>Summary of tissue-specific expression of the eight identical tryptophan tRNA genes. The number of Vs indicates the relative fluorescence intensity. Blind scoring of the expression patterns (by 3 testers) was determined using a confocal microscope.</p

The expression of <i>sup-7</i> tRNA is influenced by the promoter of the host gene, <i>C03B1</i>.<i>2</i>.

<p>The read-through reporter strain (RRS) or N2 worms were injected with the indicated constructs (the construct number corresponds to its number in <a href="http://www.plosgenetics.org/article/info:doi/10.1371/journal.pgen.1006264#pgen.1006264.g005" target="_blank">Fig 5</a>). We screened all the progeny for either red fluorescence (indicating <i>sup-7</i> expression) or for the presence of the corresponding co-injection marker. Viable lines that express the <i>sup-7</i> tryptophan tRNAs ("<i>sup-7</i> (+) promoter") were obtained by cultivating the injected worms at 22°C. Worms that were injected with the "<i>sup-7</i> (+) HSP" promoter were cultivated at 15°C.</p

Copies of tryptophan tRNA genes display different expression patterns.

<p>(A) Representative images of young adult worms; all eight tryptophan tRNA reporter strains are displayed (90/90 worms exhibited the same expression patterns). mCherry expression is a proxy for the expression of specific tryptophan tRNA genes. Images were taken under exposure conditions that also allow detecting expression in tissues where the tRNA levels are relatively low. (B) Quantification of total worm mCherry fluorescence. All strains were analyzed when the worms were the same age (young adults), using the same exposure parameters. Shown are averages of means, ± SEM, normalized to the expression levels detected in the <i>sup-7</i> strain. Three experiments were conducted, and 30 worms of each strain were scored in each experiment. *** p-value<0.001 (C) The results that were obtained using the fluorescent reporter were plotted against the Chip-seq measurements of pol III occupancy [<a href="http://www.plosgenetics.org/article/info:doi/10.1371/journal.pgen.1006264#pgen.1006264.ref052" target="_blank">52</a>].</p