Wagner’s Law and Peacock and Wiseman’s Displacement Effect in European Union Countries: A Panel Data Study

Wagner’s Law is the fi rst model of public expenditure in the history of public fi nance. It suggests that during the process of economic development the share of public spending in national income tends to expand (Wagner, 1883). Nevertheless, Peacock and Scott in 2000 wrote a paper entitled “The curious attraction of Wagner’s law,” explaining the reasons for why this (apparently) outworn theory is still studied by modern economists. On the other hand, Keynes (1936) considered public spending as an exogenous factor to be used as a policy instrument to infl uence growth. Moreover, Peacock and Wiseman (1961) presented the displacement effect, according to which during times of war tax rates are increased to generate more revenues, sustaining the increase in defense spending. While Peacock and Wiseman (1979) surveys the literature on public expenditure growth. This paper aims to analyze the relationship between public expenditure and aggregate income in European Union countries, for the period 1980-2013, using panel data methodologies. After a brief introduction, a survey of the economic literature on this issue is discussed. Then, panel data tests on stationarity, cross-dependence, cointegration, and causality are shown. Finally, some notes on policy implications conclude the paper

Analisi del processo di “pack chromising” su superleghe di Ni per turbine a gas

I rivestimenti diffusivi sono utilizzati per la realizzazione di strati protettivi necessari a migliorare la resistenza dicomponenti soggetti a fenomeni degradativi ad alta temperatura, come ossidazione e corrosione a caldo (es.: componentiper impianti turbogas, bruciatori, etc.). In particolare, l’arricchimento in cromo della superficie di leghe metalliche, adesempio attraverso processi tipo “pack-cementation”, garantisce una buona protezione dalla corrosione a caldo di tipoII. Tuttavia, in letteratura, non esistono studi sistematici ed approfonditi sui meccanismi di formazione e sull’effetto deiparametri di processo sulla microstruttura di questi rivestimenti.Lo scopo del presente lavoro, pertanto, è stato lo studio dell’effetto della composizione della miscela di polveri (packmix)e della durata del trattamento termico (12 e 24 h) sulla microstruttura e sullo spessore dei rivestimenti ottenutiutilizzando il processo di pack-chromizing. Come substrato è stata impiegata la superlega Inconel 738, mentre il packmixutilizzato è composto da polvere di cromo (10 e 25 wt.%), NH4Cl (1, 2 e 5 wt.%) e Al2O3 (bal.) come inerte.Inoltre, il campione con il rivestimento più promettente è stato sottoposto ad un successivo trattamento di packaluminizing,per ottenere uno strato superficiale arricchito sia in Cr, sia Al, adeguato a conferire simultaneamenteresistenza a corrosione a caldo a 700 – 900 °C e ad ossidazione a temperature intorno ai 1000 °C.Le caratteristiche strutturali e microstrutturali dei riporti ottenuti sono state studiate tramite microscopiaelettronica a scansione (SEM) e diffrazione di raggi X. Le analisi eseguite hanno evidenziato che la durata deltrattamento termico favorisce i fenomeni interdiffusivi delle specie chimiche più mobili, Cr e Ni, portando adun generale aumento di spessore dei rivestimenti. La quantità di polvere di cromo nel pack mix influenza laconcentrazionedi questo elemento all’interno dei coating solamente se la composizione del pack-mix prevedeanche una quantità di attivatore sufficiente a garantirne un trasporto ottimale sulla superficie e successivamenteall’interno del componente. La presenza di particelle ricche di alluminio e ossigeno nello strato diffusivo dimostrache durante il ciclo termico avvengono anche reazioni secondarie che interessano l’inerte, portando allo sviluppodi ossigeno che reagisce con alcuni elementi del substrato

Visuomotor Cerebellum in Human and Nonhuman Primates

In this paper, we will review the anatomical components of the visuomotor cerebellum in human and, where possible, in non-human primates and discuss their function in relation to those of extracerebellar visuomotor regions with which they are connected. The floccular lobe, the dorsal paraflocculus, the oculomotor vermis, the uvula–nodulus, and the ansiform lobule are more or less independent components of the visuomotor cerebellum that are involved in different corticocerebellar and/or brain stem olivocerebellar loops. The floccular lobe and the oculomotor vermis share different mossy fiber inputs from the brain stem; the dorsal paraflocculus and the ansiform lobule receive corticopontine mossy fibers from postrolandic visual areas and the frontal eye fields, respectively. Of the visuomotor functions of the cerebellum, the vestibulo-ocular reflex is controlled by the floccular lobe; saccadic eye movements are controlled by the oculomotor vermis and ansiform lobule, while control of smooth pursuit involves all these cerebellar visuomotor regions. Functional imaging studies in humans further emphasize cerebellar involvement in visual reflexive eye movements and are discussed

A Time Series Analysis of the Aggregate Income-Energy Consumption Nexus: the Case of Italy

We empirically analyze the nexus between GDP and energy consumption in the 1970-2009 years for Italy, using a time-series approach. After a brief introduction, we pre-sent the discussion of the data. Stationarity tests reveal that both series are non-stationary, or I(1). Moreover, since both series show the presence of a structural break, a Gregory and Hansen cointegration test has been per-formed. The results evidence the presence of a long-run relationship. Causality tests re-veal that the “neutrality hypothesis” emerges, insomuch as the absence of a causal rela-tionship be-tween energy consumption and real GDP is discovered. The IRFs analysis evidences that a shock to the energy consumption affects GDP for one period, but dies out very quickly. While shocks to GDP create a smaller but significant response in the energy consumption, although it falls to zero in few periods. Finally, we calculate with an ECM that the long-run multiplier is 0.70. The energy consumption will increase to correct the disequilibrium, with 11% of the (remaining) deviation corrected in each sub-sequent time period. In addition, a one-unit increase in the GDP immediately produces a 1.07 unit increase in the energy consumption

Analysis of pack chromizing of Nickel superalloys for gas turbines

The pack-cementation process is a widespread technique used to obtain protective coatings formed by diffusion mechanisms. The protection of the base component is achieved by the enrichment of the outer layer with scale formers, such as Al, Cr and Si which react with the substrate material to form new phases and intermetallics. During the working life these chemical species react with the pollutant elements to form stable oxides and compounds, increasing the oxidation and hot corrosion resistance of gas-turbine components. The component is embedded inside a mixture of powder and then exposed at high temperature. The pack-mix is based on a scale former source, an activator (usually halide salts) and an inert filler (Al2O3). The pack-cementation process consists of a heating step, an isothermal stage and a cooling step.During the thermal treatment the activator reacts with the metal source, forming a vapor phase that transports the metal source to the surface of the component, where chemical reactions lead to the inward diffusion of the selected element into the substrate, forming new phases and intermetallics.The present investigation deals with the study of formation mechanisms of diffusion coatings using chromium as scale former, in order to obtain hot corrosion resistant coating, for gas turbine applications. According to the pertinent literature aluminide coatings provide the protection of the component against oxidation, whereas chromium rich coating are more suitable against hot corrosion type II, that usually occurs at about 700 degrees C due to pollutant agentsThe main phases of these coatings depend on many parameters, such as temperature, duration of the isothermal stage and pack-mix composition. However a systematic investigation about the effect of the main process parameters on the formation mechanisms is not available in the pertinent literature.Therefore this work aims to realize an accurate investigation that leads to a better comprehension of the influence of time and pack-mix composition on the microstructure and thickness of these coatings.A Ni-base superalloy, Inconel 738, was used as substrate material in this work. The samples (approx. size 15x15x3mm) were polished with a 1000 SiC paper and the cleaned in acetone.In order to investigate the effect of the pack-mix composition on the final microstructure and on the coating thickness different formulations were selected, varying the amount of the chromium source, based on pure Cr powder (10, 25 wt.%) and the activator (NH4Cl, 1, 2 and 5 wt.%). Before each pack-chromizing cycle two samples were embedded inside a steel retort with the chosen pack-mix.Three different isothermal stage were used to evaluate the effect of the thermal cycle duration on the diffusion phenomena: 0, 12 and 24 hours at 1100 degrees C. A summary of the process parameters and the pack-mix formulations is listed in tab. 1.At the end of the pack-chromizing one sample for each deposition condition was heat treated in vacuum to evaluate the effect of the interdiffusion phenomena that occur during the vacuum cycle.The surface of the specimens were characterized by X-Ray diffraction (XRD), the cross-section of the coatings were embedded in an epoxy resin and analyzed by Scanning Electron Microscope (SEM) and Energy-Dispersion X-Ray Spectroscopy (EDS).The analysis on the coating C10A1t0 shows that the diffusion mechanism takes place even before the selected process temperature (1100 degrees C), leading to the formation of a thin Cr-rich layer (fig. 2). The dark region is based on Al2O3 rich particles, formed due to secondary reactions occurred between the salt activator and the inert filler that caused the oxidation of the aluminum originally present in the Inconel 738 composition.The comparison between the coating C10A1t0 and C10A1t12 reveals that during the isothermal stage the Cr atoms diffused inward and Ni outward. The coating is based on 3 different layer: a Cr-rich outer region, an alumina rich zone and an inner layer, mostly formed by Cr and Ti nitrides and carbides dispersed in a -Ni matrix.The XRD analysis (fig. 4) revealed that the external region in based on a Cr-rich -Ni matrix formed mainly due to the Cr inward diffusion. The Ti, Cr carbides and nitrides were formed due to the precipitation of these two elements caused by the depletion of Ni and their reaction with carbon and nitrogen. The former is an alloy element, the latter comes from the activator (NH4Cl).Increasing the amount of activator (from 1 wt.% to 2 wt.%) within the pack-mix made the transport of Cr to the sample surface easier: the concentration of this element in the outer layer is higher (fig. 3) whereas the microstructure and the coating thickness remain almost the same.The duration of the isothermal stage (from 12 to 24 h) affected the interdiffusion movements of Cr and Ni, bringing to a decrease of the Cr content in the outer layer, due to an improvement of the Ni outward diffusion (fig. 6).Increasing the Cr content from 10 to 25 wt.% made the Cr diffusion in the outer layer more relevant. Despite this it was found that the amount of activator (2 wt.%) was not enough to provide a good transport of Cr inside the coatings. Therefore, compared to the previous samples, no important changes in thickness were observed (fig. 8).To obtain thicker coatings a higher amount of activator is required (5 wt.%), in order to transport the Cr atoms not only to the substrate surface, but also inside the component (fig. 10).In order to realize a coating with a good resistance against both oxidation and hot corrosion a Cr,Al-rich diffusion coating was prepared, with a 2 step pack-chromizing and pack-aluminzing process. The coating C10A2t24 was embedded inside a pack-mix based on CoAl as aluminum source, AIF3 as activator and alumina as inert filler and then heat treated for 2.5 hours. Compared to the pack-chromized coating, the new resulting coating show a higher thickness, due to the inward diffusion of the new element. The microstructure is also different: SEM investigation shows the presence of an interdiffusion layer, that demonstrates also the outward diffusion of Ni (Fig. 12)

Non-destructive thermographic monitoring of crack evolution of thermal barrier coating coupons during cyclic oxidation aging

A semi-quantitative estimation of cracks at the TBC interface is obtained from thermal diffusivity values measured on coupons subjected to thermal cycling using a single-side thermographic technique instead of the common destructive method

Validation of a food-frequency questionnaire for the assessment of calcium intake in schoolchildren aged 9-10 years.

Bone mass increases steadily until age 20-30 years, when peak bone mass (PBM) is acquired. Nutrition plays a critical role in achievement of the optimal genetically programmed PBM, with reduction in the risk of osteoporosis later in life. Intake of nutrients can be estimated through the use of various tools; typically, food-frequency questionnaires (FFQs) are used in epidemiologic studies. The aim of this study was to validate a 21-item, semiquantitative FFQ to assess important nutrient intakes for bone health in Italian schoolchildren 9-10 years of age. Relative validation was accomplished through comparison of the 7-days weighed food record (7D records) with an FFQ developed ad hoc, completed by a group of 75 Italian schoolchildren (36 females, 39 males). Agreement between the two methods was evaluated by Spearman's correlation test and Bland-Altman analysis applied on the data on intake of energy, macronutrients, and micronutrients. Particular attention was devoted to nutrients relevant for bone health. Good correlations between the two methods (FFQ and 7D records) were observed for all nutrients. In particular, mean dietary calcium intakes were 725.6 mg/day (95 % CI 683.2-768.1) from 7D records and 892.4 mg/day (95 % CI 844.6-940.2) from the FFQ. These results indicate that our FFQ for schoolchildren aged 9-10 years is highly acceptable as it is an accurate method that can be used in large-scale or epidemiological studies for the evaluation of nutrient intakes important for the prevention of osteoporosis in a similar population

Diagnostic and therapeutic path of breast cancer: effectiveness, appropriateness, and costs – results from the DOCMa study

Maria Rosaria Giovagnoli,1 Adriana Bonifacino,2 Cosimo Neglia,3 Marco Benvenuto,3,4 Francesco Vincenzo Sambati,3 Lorenzo Giolli,5 Alessandra Giovagnoli,6 Prisco Piscitelli7,8 1Department of Clinical and Molecular Medicine, 2Department of Medical-Surgical Sciences and Translational Medicine, Sapienza University of Rome, Sant’Andrea University Hospital, Rome, 3Euro Mediterranean Scientific Biomedical Institute (ISBEM), Brindisi, 4Department of Economics, Scuola Superiore Sant’Anna, Pisa, 5eCampus University, Novedrate, 6Department of Statistical Sciences, University of Bologna, Bologna, 7Coleman Ltd, 8IOS, Southern Italy Hospital Institute, Naples, ItalyObjective: An increase in breast cancer incidence has been documented in Italy and in other countries, and some women decide by themselves to undergo diagnostic examinations outside the official screening campaigns. The aim of this paper was to analyze – in terms of effectiveness, appropriate access, and related costs – the path spontaneously followed by a sample of Italian women for the early diagnosis of breast cancer.Subjects and methods: A total of 143 women who consecutively referred themselves to the breast cancer outpatient facilities at the Sant’Andrea University Hospital in Rome from May to June 2007 were enrolled in the study, gave their consent, and were screened according to their individual risk factors for breast cancer. The entire diagnostic and therapeutic path followed in the previous 2 years by each of them, either at Sant’Andrea or in other medical facilities, was reviewed and evaluated in terms of its operative efficiency and fair economic value.Results: The subjects’ mean age was 47.5 years (standard deviation 13.6 years); 55% of the women were <50 years old (28% <40 years), and were thus not included in the official screening campaigns; 97 women (70%) were requesting a routine control; and 49% of them had already undergone four to seven examinations before the enrollment, although no major risk factor was present in 73.5%. After enrollment in the study, nine of the patients had surgical interventions performed on them at Sant’Andrea’s, identifying five invasive carcinomas and two ductal in situ carcinomas and two benign lesions. Operative efficiency and fair economic value were found to be optimal only in diagnostic/therapeutic paths followed at Sant’Andrea.Conclusion: The diagnostic path at Sant’Andrea’s specialized center for breast cancer diagnosis and therapy is characterized by higher operative efficiency and more sustainable costs than at general hospitals, outpatient facilities run by local health authorities, or private medical centers. This result seems to confirm the present tendency to refer high-risk patients for breast cancer directly to breast units like the one at Sant’Andrea.Keywords: breast cancer, early diagnosis, prevention, screening, cost analysis, breast uni