Impact of Individuals' Commuting Trips on Subjective Well-being: Evidence from Xi’an

Transportation as an important component for urban sustainability has been well recognized. Although the lay understanding of sustainability generally focuses on environmental stewardship, more broadly sustainability is comprised of three aspects: environmental, economic and social sustainability. Individual and societal well-being are critical indicators of social sustainability, however, little attention from research and policy has been paid to the impacts of transportation on well-being. With extensive urban expansion resulting from rapid urbanization, commuting has become a physical and mental burden for many residents in the megacities of China because of the increasing travel distances and worsening travel experiences, significantly influencing their well-being. Relying on the data from a survey conducted in Xi-an, a mega-city of western China, this study quantitatively investigated the relationship between commuting and subjective wellbeing in the Chinese context. Based on the evidence from Xi-an, China, this study found that (1) commute characteristics, including travel mode choice and level of services, significantly influence commuting satisfaction, which in turn significantly affects overall satisfaction with life; (2) the built environment has no direct effect on commuting satisfaction, however it could indirectly affect commuting satisfaction through the path of commuting characteristics; most of travel-related attitudes have both direct and indirect effects on travel satisfaction; (3) the lower income population are more likely to live in pedestrian and transit unfriendly places, are more captive to their travel modes, and have lower levels of life satisfaction; all of which contribute to the lower level of commuting satisfaction among the lower income population. This study contributes to the literature by framing and quantitatively exploring the complicated relationships between the built environment, attitudes, travel characteristics, travel satisfaction and subjective wellbeing. This study also informs policies that help to improve satisfaction with commuting and wellbeing

Assessing the significance of Palaeolithic engraved cortexes. A case study from the Mousterian site of Kiik-Koba, Crimea - Fig 8

<p><b>Probable chronology of the incisions on the Kiik-Koba cortex (left)</b>. Note the areas of the cortex concerned by each new engraving episode indicating intent to fill in the center of the cortex (right).</p

Assessing the significance of Palaeolithic engraved cortexes. A case study from the Mousterian site of Kiik-Koba, Crimea

<div><p>Twenty-Seven Lower and Middle Paleolithic sites from Europe and the Middle East are reported in the literature to have yielded incised stones. At eleven of these sites incisions are present on flint cortexes. Even when it is possible to demonstrate that the engravings are ancient and human made, it is often difficult to distinguish incisions resulting from functional activities such as butchery or use as a cutting board, from those produced deliberately, and even more difficult to identify the scope of the latter. In this paper we present results of the analysis of an engraved cortical flint flake found at Kiik-Koba, a key Mousterian site from Crimea, and create an interpretative framework to guide the interpretation of incised cortexes. The frame of inference that we propose allows for a reasoned evaluation of the actions playing a role in the marking process and aims at narrowing down the interpretation of the evidence. The object comes from layer IV, the same layer in which a Neanderthal child burial was unearthed, which contains a para-Micoquian industry of Kiik-Koba type dated to between c.35 and 37 cal kyr BP. The microscopic analysis and 3D reconstruction of the grooves on the cortex of this small flint flake, demonstrate that the incisions represent a deliberate engraving made by a skilled craftsman, probably with two different points. The lines are nearly perfectly framed into the cortex, testifying of well controlled motions. This is especially the case considering the small size of the object, which makes this a difficult task. The production of the engraving required excellent neuromotor and volitional control, which implies focused attention. Evaluation of the Kiik-Koba evidence in the light of the proposed interpretative framework supports the view that the engraving was made with a representational intent.</p></div

The engraved flint flake from Kiik-Koba, layer IV.

<p>Photo (top) and tracing (bottom). Engraved lines are indicated by dark-grey areas outlined in black, surface damage by light gray areas, flake scars by gray lines.</p

A framework for assessing the character of the engravings on cortexes.

<p>A framework for assessing the character of the engravings on cortexes.</p

The engraved flint flake from Kiik-Koba layer IV.

<p>The arrow indicates the point of impact. Scale = 1 cm.</p

Contextual and descriptive data on lower and middle Paleolithic stone surfaces with incisions from Europe and Middle East.

<p>Contextual and descriptive data on lower and middle Paleolithic stone surfaces with incisions from Europe and Middle East.</p

Close-up views of selected lines on the Kiik-Koba engraved cortex.

<p>a: from left to right, starting points of lines 9, 1, 2, 6, and 3; b: from left to right, starting points of lines 6, 3 and 4; c: from left to right, middle of the lines 12, 2, 13, 3, 7, and 4. Scales = 1 mm.</p

Faunal remains from Kiik-Koba, layer IV.

<p>Faunal remains from Kiik-Koba, layer IV.</p

Color variations per layer of flint artefacts from Kiik-Koba.

<p>After [<a href="http://www.plosone.org/article/info:doi/10.1371/journal.pone.0195049#pone.0195049.ref122" target="_blank">122</a>]: 99.</p