Transcriptome analysis of mammary epithelial subpopulations identifies novel determinants of lineage commitment and cell fate

Background: Understanding the molecular control of cell lineages and fate determination in complex tissues is key to not only understanding the developmental biology and cellular homeostasis of such tissues but also for our understanding and interpretation of the molecular pathology of diseases such as cancer. The prerequisite for such an understanding is detailed knowledge of the cell types that make up such tissues, including their comprehensive molecular characterisation. In the mammary epithelium, the bulk of the tissue is composed of three cell lineages, namely the basal/myoepithelial, luminal epithelial estrogen receptor positive and luminal epithelial estrogen receptor negative cells. However, a detailed molecular characterisation of the transcriptomic differences between these three populations has not been carried out. Results: A whole transcriptome analysis of basal/myoepithelial cells, luminal estrogen receptor negative cells and luminal estrogen receptor positive cells isolated from the virgin mouse mammary epithelium identified 861, 326 and 488 genes as highly differentially expressed in the three cell types, respectively. Network analysis of the transcriptomic data identified a subpopulation of luminal estrogen receptor negative cells with a novel potential role as non-professional immune cells. Analysis of the data for potential paracrine interacting factors showed that the basal/myoepithelial cells, remarkably, expressed over twice as many ligands and cell surface receptors as the other two populations combined. A number of transcriptional regulators were also identified that were differentially expressed between the cell lineages. One of these, Sox6, was specifically expressed in luminal estrogen receptor negative cells and functional assays confirmed that it maintained mammary epithelial cells in a differentiated luminal cell lineage. Conclusion: The mouse mammary epithelium is composed of three main cell types with distinct gene expression patterns. These suggest the existence of a novel functional cell type within the gland, that the basal/myoepithelial cells are key regulators of paracrine signalling and that there is a complex network of differentially expressed transcription factors controlling mammary epithelial cell fate. These data will form the basis for understanding not only cell fate determination and cellular homeostasis in the normal mammary epithelium but also the contribution of different mammary epithelial cell types to the etiology and molecular pathology of breast disease

Identification of cellular and genetic drivers of breast cancer heterogeneity in genetically engineered mouse tumour models

The heterogeneous nature of mammary tumours may arise from different initiating genetic lesions occurring in distinct cells of origin. Here, we generated mice in which Brca2, Pten and p53 were depleted in either basal mammary epithelial cells or luminal oestrogen receptor (ER) negative cells. Basal cell-origin tumors displayed similar histological phenotypes regardless of the depleted gene. In contrast, luminal ER negative cells gave rise to diverse phenotypes, depending on the initiating lesions, including both ER negative and, strikingly, ER positive Invasive Ductal Carcinomas. Molecular profiling demonstrated that luminal ER negative cell-origin tumours resembled a range of the molecular subtypes of human breast cancer, including basal-like, luminal B and ‘normal-like’. Furthermore, a subset of these tumours resembled the ‘claudin-low’ tumour subtype. These findings demonstrate that not only do mammary tumour phenotypes depend on the interactions between cell-of-origin and driver genetic aberrations, but also that multiple mammary tumour subtypes, including both ER positive and negative disease, can originate from a single epithelial cell type. This is a fundamental advance in our understanding of tumour etiology

Pregnancy in the mature adult mouse does not alter the proportion of mammary epithelial stem/progenitor cells

Introduction In humans, an early full-term pregnancy reduces lifetime breast cancer risk by up to 50% whereas a later pregnancy (>35 years old) can increase lifetime risk. Several mechanisms have been suggested, including changes in levels of circulating hormones, changes in the way the breast responds to these hormones, changes in gene expression programmes which may alter susceptibility to transformation and changes to mammary stem cell numbers or behaviour. Previous studies have shown that the mammary tissue isolated from both virgin and parous mice has the ability to repopulate a cleared mammary fat pad in transplant experiments. Limited dilution transplant assays have demonstrated that early pregnancy (at 5 weeks of age) reduces stem/progenitor cell numbers in the mouse mammary epithelium by twofold. However, the effects on stem/progenitor cell numbers in the mammary epithelium of a pregnancy in older animals have not yet been tested. Methods Mice were put through a full-term pregnancy at 9 weeks of age, when the mammary epithelium is mature. The total mammary epithelium was purified from parous 7-week post-lactation and age-matched virgin mice and analysed by flow cytometry and limiting dilution cleared fat pad transplants. Results There were no significant differences in the proportions of different mammary epithelial cell populations or numbers of CD24+/Low Sca-1- CD49fHigh cells (stem cell enriched basal mammary epithelial compartment). There was no significant difference in stem/progenitor cell frequency based on limiting dilution transplants between the parous and age-matched virgin epithelium. Conclusions Although differences between parous and virgin mammary epithelium at later time points post lactation or following multiple pregnancies cannot be ruled out, there are no differences in stem/progenitor cell numbers between mammary epithelium isolated from parous animals which were mated at 9 weeks old and virgin animals. However, a recent report has suggested that animals that were mated at 5 weeks old have a twofold reduction in stem/progenitor cell numbers. This is of interest given the association between early, but not late, pregnancy and breast cancer risk reduction in humans. However, a mechanistic connection between stem cell numbers and breast cancer risk remains to be established

Chemopreventive potential of dietary polyphenols.

The chemopreventive potential of a wide variety of structurally diverse polyphenols were initially evaluated for their apoptotic-inducing activity, using HCT-8 ileocecal adenocarcinoma cells. Apoptosis was measured by fluorescence microscopy and morphological criteria. (-)-Epigallocatechin-3-gallate (EGCG), theaflavins, curcumin and the grape seed polymer were found to be the most potent inducers of apoptosis, at concentrations physiologically relevant to humans. In contrast to the observation in HCT-8 cancerous cells, polyphenol-induced apoptosis was substantially lower in ICE-6 non-cancerous epithelial cells. The aforementioned "active" apoptotic polyphenols were subsequently assessed for their ability to activate direct and indirect caspases. Activation of downstream caspase- 3 and -7, and upstream caspase-9, in HCT-8 cells, implies that an intrinsic (intracellular) caspase cascade is involved in polyphenol-induced apoptosis. Potential pro-oxidant and/or antioxidant mechanisms and interactions, through which polyphenols may initiate apoptosis in HCT-8 cells, were investigated by assessing the impact of various agents, including antioxidant enzymes and hydrogen peroxide (H2O2), upon apoptotic induction. Catalase and superoxide dismutase substantially reduced EGCG-induced apoptosis. In contrast, a substantial rise in EGCG-induced apoptosis was observed in the presence of both H2O2 and Fe3+. Moreover, H2O2 production was apparent in the presence of EGCG. These data thus suggest that polyphenols induce apoptosis via a pro-oxidant mechanism, which appears to involve the generation of H2O2 and transition metals in a Fenton type reaction. A range of naturally-occurring and synthetic polyphenolic compounds was assessed for their ability to bind to the Ah receptor, as agonists and/or antagonists, in HlLl.lc2 cells, using the chemically activated luciferase gene expression (CALUX) assay. Although the flavonoid 3',4'-dimethoxyflavone appears to competitively antagonise 2,3,7,8-tetrachlorodibenzo-p-dioxin binding at the Ah receptor, the other flavonoids tested failed to indicate reliable or reproducible interactions with the Ah receptor

Chemopreventive potential of dietary polyphenols

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BRCA1 Basal-like Breast Cancers Originate from Luminal Epithelial Progenitors and Not from Basal Stem Cells

Breast cancers in BRCA1 mutation carriers frequently have a distinctive basal-like phenotype. It has been suggested that this results from an origin in basal breast epithelial stem cells. Here, we demonstrate that deleting Brca1 in mouse mammary epithelial luminal progenitors produces tumors that phenocopy human BRCA1 breast cancers. They also resemble the majority of sporadic basal-like breast tumors. However, directing Brca1 deficiency to basal cells generates tumors that express molecular markers of basal breast cancers but do not histologically resemble either human BRCA1 or the majority of sporadic basal-like breast tumors. These findings support a derivation of the majority of human BRCA1-associated and sporadic basal-like tumors from luminal progenitors rather than from basal stem cells. They also demonstrate that when target cells for transformation have the potential for phenotypic plasticity, tumor phenotypes may not directly reflect histogenesis. This has important implications for cancer prevention strategies

Identification of cellular and genetic drivers of breast cancer heterogeneity in genetically engineered mouse tumour models

The heterogeneous nature of mammary tumours may arise from different initiating genetic lesions occurring in distinct cells of origin. Here, we generated mice in which Brca2, Pten and p53 were depleted in either basal mammary epithelial cells or luminal oestrogen receptor (ER) negative cells. Basal cell-origin tumors displayed similar histological phenotypes regardless of the depleted gene. In contrast, luminal ER negative cells gave rise to diverse phenotypes, depending on the initiating lesions, including both ER negative and, strikingly, ER positive Invasive Ductal Carcinomas. Molecular profiling demonstrated that luminal ER negative cell-origin tumours resembled a range of the molecular subtypes of human breast cancer, including basal-like, luminal B and ‘normal-like’. Furthermore, a subset of these tumours resembled the ‘claudin-low’ tumour subtype. These findings demonstrate that not only do mammary tumour phenotypes depend on the interactions between cell-of-origin and driver genetic aberrations, but also that multiple mammary tumour subtypes, including both ER positive and negative disease, can originate from a single epithelial cell type. This is a fundamental advance in our understanding of tumour etiology