Interaction entre le virus SRRP et Actinobacillus pleuropneumoniae dans un modèle d'infection en culture cellulaire

Le virus du syndrome reproducteur et respiratoire porcin (VSRRP) est un pathogène d’importance dans l’industrie porcine et est responsable d’importantes pertes économiques. Il n’existe pas d’antiviral efficace contre celui-ci. Il a récemment été mis en évidence que le surnageant de culture d’Actinobacillus pleuropneumoniae, l’agent étiologique de la pleuropneumonie porcine, possédait une activité antivirale in vitro contre le VSRRP dans la lignée cellulaire SJPL. Les objectifs de mon projet sont (i) d’étudier les mécanismes cellulaires menant à l’activité antivirale causée par le surnageant de culture d’A. pleuropneumoniae, et (ii) de caractériser les molécules actives présentes dans le surnageant de culture d’A. pleuropneumoniae. Dans un premier temps, des analyses de protéome ont été effectuées et ont permis d’observer que le surnageant de culture modulait la régulation du cycle cellulaire. Dans le but d’analyser le cycle cellulaire des cellules SJPL, la cytométrie en flux a été utilisée et a permis de démontrer que le surnageant de culture induisait un arrêt du cycle cellulaire en phase G2/M. Deux inhibiteurs de la phase G2/M ont alors été utilisé. Il s'est avéré que ces inhibiteurs avaient la capacité d’inhiber le VSRRP dans les cellules SJPL. Enfin, la spectrométrie de masse a été utilisée dans le but de caractériser les molécules actives présentes dans le surnageant de culture d’A. pleuropneumoniae et d’identifier deux molécules. Ce projet a permis de démontrer pour la première fois qu’A. pleuropneumoniae est capable de perturber le cycle cellulaire et que ce dernier était un élément important dans l’effet antiviral contre le VSRRP.Porcine reproductive and respiratory syndrome virus (PRRSV) is the most important pathogen in the swine industry and causes important economic losses. No effective antiviral drugs against it exist. It was recently reported that the culture supernatant of Actinobacillus pleuropneumoniae, the causative agent of porcine pleuropneumonia, possesses an antiviral activity in vitro against PRRSV in SJPL cells. The objectives of this project were (i) to identify the mechanism behind the antiviral activity displayed by A. pleuropneumoniae, and (ii) to characterize the active molecules present in the culture supernatant. Proteomic analyses were first conducted and demonstrated the culture supernatant ability to induce modulations of the cell cycle regulation. In order to determine the SJPL cell cycle, flow cytometry analyses were performed and demonstrated that the culture supernatant induced a G2/M-phase cell cycle arrest. Two G2/M-phase cell cycle inhibitors were then used and their ability to inhibit PRRSV infection in SJPL cells was demonstrated. Finally, in order to characterize the active molecules present in the A. pleuropneumoniae culture supernatant, mass spectrometry was used and two molecules were identified. This is the first study demonstrating the A. pleuropneumoniae ability to disrupt cell cycle and the cell cycle importance to the inhibitory activity against PRRSV

Étude de l'interactome et identification de nouvelles cibles de la protéine virale Vpr du VIH-1

Le virus de l’immunodéficience humaine de type 1 (VIH-1) est l’agent étiologique du SIDA, un rétrovirus complexe encodant les protéines accessoires : Nef, Vif, Vpr et Vpu. La fonction principale de ces protéines est de moduler l’environnement cellulaire afin de promouvoir la réplication virale. Les travaux présentés dans cette thèse portent sur la protéine virale Vpr, une protéine bien connue pour son activité d’arrêt du cycle cellulaire en phase G2/M dans les cellules en division et pour l’avantage réplicatif qu’elle confère au virus durant l’infection de cellules myéloïdes. Les évènements sous-jacents à ces deux activités restent pour l’heure mal compris. Le but des travaux regroupés dans cet ouvrage est d’identifier de nouveaux facteurs cellulaires pouvant éventuellement expliquer les activités de Vpr précédemment décrites. Pour ce faire, nous avons utilisé une approche d’identification des partenaires de proximité par biotinylation, appelée BioID. L’avantage du BioID est de permettre un marquage in cellulo des protéines à proximité de la protéine d’intérêt. La mise en place et la caractérisation de cette approche font l’objet de la première section de cette thèse. En utilisant cette approche, nous avons défini un réseau de 352 partenaires cellulaires de la protéine Vpr. Parmi ces partenaires de Vpr, plusieurs sont organisés sous forme de complexes ou réseaux protéiques incluant notamment le complexe promoteur de l’anaphase/cyclosome (APC/C) et les centrosomes. Étant donné que le complexe APC/C est l’un des principaux régulateurs du cycle cellulaire, nous avons décidé d’analyser sa relation avec Vpr. Nous avons découvert que Vpr formait un complexe non seulement avec APC1, une sous-unité essentielle du complexe APC/C, mais aussi avec les coactivateurs (CDH1 et CDC20) de ce complexe. Nous avons par la suite démontré que Vpr induisait la dégradation d’APC1 et que celle-ci pouvait être prévenue par une double-mutation N28S-G41N de Vpr. Cette dégradation d’APC1 ne semblerait pas être reliée aux activités précédemment décrites de Vpr. Ces travaux font l’objet de la seconde section de cette thèse. Enfin, dans une troisième section, des travaux effectués en collaboration et analysant la relation entre les centrosomes et Vpr sont présentés. Cette thèse identifie 200 nouveaux partenaires de Vpr, ouvrant la porte à l’exploration de nouvelles cibles et activités de Vpr. Elle décrit également une nouvelle cible de Vpr : le complexe APC/C. Globalement nos résultats contribuent à une meilleure compréhension de la façon dont le VIH-1 manipule l’environnement cellulaire de l’hôte à travers la protéine virale Vpr.Human immunodeficiency virus (HIV-1) is the AIDS causal agent. This complex retrovirus encodes several accessory proteins; namely Nef, Vif, Vpr and Vpu; whose functions are to manipulate the cellular host environment in order to favor HIV-1 viral replication. This thesis focused on Vpr whose main activities are to induce a cell cycle arrest in the G2/M phase in dividing cells and to provide a replicative advantage to HIV-1 during infection of myeloid cells such as macrophages. The cellular mechanisms underlying these two activities are up to now misunderstood. The main goal of the work presented in this thesis is to identify new cellular factors that could potentially explain the previously described Vpr activities. To do so, we used the proximity labelling approach called BioID. The main strength of BioID is to tag in cellulo partners of the protein of interest. The development as well as optimization of the BioID approach is presented in the thesis first section. Using BioID, we defined a network containing 352 cellular partners in close proximity with the viral protein Vpr. Amongst these cellular partners, several were organized into protein complexes or networks such as the anaphase promoting complex/cyclosome (APC/C) or the centrosome. Given that APC/C is a cell cycle master-regulator, we analyzed the interplay governing Vpr and APC/C interactions. We first demonstrated that Vpr could form a complex containing the scaffolding subunit APC1. APC/C coactivators, namely CDH1 and CDC20, could also be found in association with Vpr. We next showed that Vpr was inducing APC1 degradation and that Vpr residues N28 and G41 were essential to this activity. Surprisingly, the APC1-Vpr interplay does not relate to previously described Vpr activities. This work is presented in the second section of this thesis. Lastly, in the third section, a work done in collaboration analyzed the interplay between Vpr and the centrosomes. In this thesis we identified 200 new potential partners of Vpr, opening the doors to discover novel Vpr targets and activities. This thesis also defined APC/C as new Vpr target. Taken together our results allow a better understanding on how HIV-1 modulates the cellular environment by using the viral accessory protein Vpr

Actinobacillus pleuropneumoniae induces SJPL cell cycle arrest in G2/M-phase and inhibits porcine reproductive and respiratory syndrome virus replication

Background: Porcine reproductive and respiratory syndrome virus (PRRSV) is one of the most important pathogens in the swine industry and causes important economic losses. No effective antiviral drugs against it are commercially available. We recently reported that the culture supernatant of Actinobacillus pleuropneumoniae, the porcine pleuropneumonia causative agent, has an antiviral activity in vitro against PRRSV in SJPL cells. Objectives of this study were (i) to identify the mechanism behind the antiviral activity displayed by A. pleuropneumoniae and (ii) to characterize the active molecules present in the bacterial culture supernatant. Methods: Antibody microarray analysis was used in order to point out cellular pathways modulated by the A. pleuropneumoniae supernatant. Subsequent, flow cytometry analysis and cell cycle inhibitors were used to confirm antibody microarray data and to link them to the antiviral activity of the A. pleuropneumoniae supernatant. Finally, A. pleuropneumoniae supernatant characterization was partially achieved using mass spectrometry. Results: Using antibody microarray, we observed modulations in G2/M-phase cell cycle regulation pathway when SJPL cells were treated with A. pleuropneumoniae culture supernatant. These modulations were confirmed by a cell cycle arrest at the G2/M-phase when cells were treated with the A. pleuropneumoniae culture supernatant. Furthermore, two G2/M-phase cell cycle inhibitors demonstrated the ability to inhibit PRRSV infection, indicating a potential key role for PRRSV infection. Finally, mass spectrometry lead to identify two molecules (m/z 515.2 and m/z 663.6) present only in the culture supernatant. Conclusions: We demonstrated for the first time that A. pleuropneumoniae is able to disrupt SJPL cell cycle resulting in inhibitory activity against PRRSV. Furthermore, two putative molecules were identified from the culture supernatant. This study highlighted the cell cycle importance for PRRSV and will allow the development of new prophylactic or therapeutic approaches against PRRSV

Regulation of CD4 Receptor and HIV-1 Entry by MicroRNAs-221 and -222 during Differentiation of THP-1 Cells

Human immunodeficiency virus type-1 (HIV-1) infection of monocyte/macrophages is modulated by the levels of entry receptors cluster of differentiation 4 (CD4) and C-C chemokine receptor type 5 (CCR5), as well as by host antiviral restriction factors, which mediate several post-entry blocks. We recently identified two microRNAs, miR-221 and miR-222, which limit HIV-1 entry during infection of monocyte-derived macrophages (MDMs) by down-regulating CD4 expression. Interestingly, CD4 is also down-regulated during the differentiation of monocytes into macrophages. In this study, we compared microRNA expression profiles in primary monocytes and macrophages by RNAseq and found that miR-221/miR-222 are enhanced in macrophages. We took advantage of the monocytic THP-1 cell line that, once differentiated, is poorly susceptible to HIV-1. Accordingly, we found that CD4 levels are very low in THP-1 differentiated cells and that this down-regulation of the virus receptor is the result of miR-221/miR-222 up-regulation during differentiation. We thus established a THP-1 cell line stably expressing a modified CD4 (THP-1-CD4R) that is not modulated by miR-221/miR-222. We show that in contrast to parental THP-1, this line is productively infected by HIV-1 following differentiation, sustaining efficient HIV-1 CD4-dependent replication and spread. This new THP-1-CD4R cell line represents a useful tool for the study of HIV-1-macrophage interactions particularly in contexts where spreading of viral infection is necessary

Host MicroRNAs-221 and -222 Inhibit HIV-1 Entry in Macrophages by Targeting the CD4 Viral Receptor

Macrophages are heterogeneous immune cells with distinct origins, phenotypes, functions, and tissue localization. Their susceptibility to HIV-1 is subject to variations from permissiveness to resistance, owing in part to regulatory microRNAs. Here, we used RNA sequencing (RNA-seq) to examine the expression of >400 microRNAs in productively infected and bystander cells of HIV-1-exposed macrophage cultures. Two microRNAs upregulated in bystander macrophages, miR-221 and miR-222, were identified as negative regulators of CD4 expression and CD4-mediated HIV-1 entry. Both microRNAs were enhanced by tumor necrosis factor alpha (TNF-α), an inhibitor of CD4 expression. MiR-221/miR-222 inhibitors recovered HIV-1 entry in TNF-α-treated macrophages by enhancing CD4 expression and increased HIV-1 replication and spread in macrophages by countering TNF-α-enhanced miR-221/miR-222 expression in bystander cells. In line with these findings, HIV-1-resistant intestinal myeloid cells express higher levels of miR-221 than peripheral blood monocytes. Thus, miR-221/miR-222 act as effectors of the antiviral host response activated during macrophage infection that restrict HIV-1 entry