Desflurane modulates the MI between mf and GrCs.

<p><b>A.</b> Scheme of the granular layer microcircuit. The stimulating electrode (Stim) was positioned onto the mossy fiber bundle (mf). GoC, Golgi cell; GrC, granule cell. <b>B.</b> Spike detection procedure generating binary digits. <i>Top</i> Single response of a GrC to 4 pulses at 100 Hz (mf code 1111, arrows). The spike in each time window determines the binary output (code 1001010000). <i>Bottom</i> Single GrC variability in response to the repetition of the same input pattern (25 repetition). <b>C.</b> Recordings (10 superimposed responses) from GrC following a 3-pulse, 100-Hz burst (mf code 1110, arrows) in control condition (<i>top</i>), during the application of desflurane (<i>middle</i>) and after wash-out (<i>bottom</i>). Desflurane (middle) decreases the total number of emitted spikes as well the the 1^st spike delay variability. The initial condition is fully recovered after anesthetic wash out (right). <b>D.</b> Recordings (10 superimposed responses) performed in the presence of gabazine. Note the increased number of spikes. GrC was stimulated with a 3-pulse, 100-Hz burst (mf code 1110, arrows). <b>E.</b> Histogram resumes MI changes induced by desflurane in control condition (n = 7) and in the presence of gabazine (n = 6). In this and in the following figures: * p < 0.05; ** p < 0.01.</p

Desflurane modulates the MI between mf and GrCs.

<p><b>A.</b> Scheme of the granular layer microcircuit. The stimulating electrode (Stim) was positioned onto the mossy fiber bundle (mf). GoC, Golgi cell; GrC, granule cell. <b>B.</b> Spike detection procedure generating binary digits. <i>Top</i> Single response of a GrC to 4 pulses at 100 Hz (mf code 1111, arrows). The spike in each time window determines the binary output (code 1001010000). <i>Bottom</i> Single GrC variability in response to the repetition of the same input pattern (25 repetition). <b>C.</b> Recordings (10 superimposed responses) from GrC following a 3-pulse, 100-Hz burst (mf code 1110, arrows) in control condition (<i>top</i>), during the application of desflurane (<i>middle</i>) and after wash-out (<i>bottom</i>). Desflurane (middle) decreases the total number of emitted spikes as well the the 1^st spike delay variability. The initial condition is fully recovered after anesthetic wash out (right). <b>D.</b> Recordings (10 superimposed responses) performed in the presence of gabazine. Note the increased number of spikes. GrC was stimulated with a 3-pulse, 100-Hz burst (mf code 1110, arrows). <b>E.</b> Histogram resumes MI changes induced by desflurane in control condition (n = 7) and in the presence of gabazine (n = 6). In this and in the following figures: * p < 0.05; ** p < 0.01.</p

Modulation of excitatory neurotransmission by desflurane.

<p><b>A.</b><i>Left</i>. Evoked EPSCs elicited in response to 4 pulses at 100 Hz and recorded from a GrC voltage clamped at -70 mV in control (black) and during (gray) desflurane perfusion. <i>Right</i>. EPSC elicited from a GrC voltage clamped at -40 mV in the presence of gabazine and NBQX, in control (black) and during (gray) desflurane perfusion. <b>B.</b> EPSPs elicited by sub-threshold stimuli in GrC at -60 mV (20 superimposed traces). Histogram summarizes the effects of desflurane perfusion on EPSPs (n = 7).</p

Modulation of evoked GABAergic inhibition by desflurane.

<p><b>A.</b> Evoked IPSCs elicited by a single stimulus before (Con) and during desflurane (Des). Gray traces indicate the average of the 15 superimposed traces. <i>Bottom</i>: Normalized average traces taken from upper panels. Monoexponential fitting (dashed lines) show the decreased rise and the increased decay time <b>B.</b> eIPSCs elicited by a pair of stimuli at 50Hz recorded from a different granule cell before (black) and during (gray) desflurane perfusion. <i>Middle</i>: rise time. Histogram summarizes the variations induced by desflurane on eIPSC biophysical properties (n = 7). <b>C.</b> Time courses of the effect of desflurane (bar) on eIPSCs rise time (Rise_10–90), decay time constant (τ) and peak amplitude (I_peak). Note the rapid effect onset (less than 30 sec). Steady state is obtained in less than 100 seconds.</p

Antibacterial activity of <i>Rosmarinus officinalis</i> L. and <i>Thymus vulgaris</i> L. essential oils and their combination against food-borne pathogens and spoilage bacteria in ready-to-eat vegetables

<p>The antibacterial activity of <i>Rosmarinus officinalis</i> L. and <i>Thymus vulgaris</i> L. essential oils (EOs), and their combination against food-borne and spoilage bacteria (<i>Listeria monocytogenes</i>, <i>Salmonella enteritidis</i>, <i>Yersinia enterocolitica</i>, <i>Escherichia coli</i> and <i>Pseudomonas</i> spp.) was determined. The EOs inhibitory effect was evaluated both <i>in vitro</i> by using the disk diffusion assay and the minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) determination, and <i>on food</i> by using an artificially contaminated ready-to-eat (RTE) vegetables. The results showed that the lowest MIC values were obtained with <i>R. officinalis</i> and <i>T. vulgaris</i> EOs against <i>E. coli</i> (4 and 8 μL/mL, respectively). The incorporation of the EOs alone or their combination in RTE vegetables reduced the viable counts of all the tested strains. Lastly, in the <i>on food</i> study we simulated the worst hygienic conditions, obtaining results that can be considered a warranty of safety.</p

Modulation of granule cell firing by desflurane.

<p><b>A.</b> Spikes elicited in response to mf stimulation (single pulse, arrow). Traces show 10 superimposed responses in control and during desflurane application. Note the decrease in the probability of eliciting spikes (increased failures: asterisk) and in the number of emitted spikes. Desflurane synchronizes firing as indicated by reduced spike jittering. <b>B.</b> Histogram summarizes variations in spike related parameters induced by deflurane. <b>C.</b> Spikes from GrCs elicited in response to pairs of stimuli at different frequencies (30–100 Hz, 15 superimposed traces). Desflurane decreases the probability of eliciting spike, the total number of emitted spikes and the firing frequency (n = 7). <b>D.</b> Relationship between input frequency (f Input: spikes in mf) and output frequency (f Output: spikes in GrCs) in control (Con) and during desflurane application (Des) (n = 7).</p

Modulation of spontaneous GABAergic inhibition by desflurane.

<p><b>A.</b> Scheme of the granular layer microcircuit. The stimulating electrode (stim) is placed in the surrounding of the recorded GrC to evoke action potentials in the GoC axonal plexus. <i>Traces</i>: Spontaneous IPSCs recorded from GrCs voltage clamped at 0 mV reflects the autorhythmic discharge of GoCs. <b>B.</b> sIPSCs recorded from a granule cell before (top) and after (bottom) the application of desflurane. Note that sIPSC frequency and peak amplitude are unchanged. <b>C.</b> Normalized sIPSCs recorded from a GrC before (black) and during (gray) desflurane application. The mono-exponential fitting of the current relaxation reveals significant changes in the decay while the rise time is decreased (middle). Histogram summarizes the effects induced by desflurane on the biophysical properties of spontaneous inhibitory currents (n = 7).</p

Desflurane increases intrinsic excitability of granule cells.

<p><b>A.</b> GrC voltage responses to current injections (bottom traces 1 pA/step) in control conditions, during desflurane perfusion and following wash-out. Note the decreased number of current steps required to generate action potentials and the increased number of elicited spikes, concomitant with a reduced firing threshold (arrow). <b>B.</b> Comparison of spike waveform obtained in control condition (black), in the presence of desflurane (dark gray) and following wash-out (light gray). <b>C.</b> Histogram summarizes the variations induced by desflurane on the current needed to elicit spikes (current inj), spike threshold (spike thr), spike after hyperpolarization (spike AHP) and spike half-width (spike HW) (n = 7).</p

<i>Lavandula x intermedia</i> and <i>Lavandula angustifolia</i> essential oils: phytochemical composition and antimicrobial activity against foodborne pathogens

<p>Four cultivars (cv) of <i>Lavandula x intermedia</i> (‘Abrialis’, ‘Alba’, ‘Rinaldi Ceroni’ (R.C.) and ‘Sumiens’) were cultivated in Italy and their essential oils (EOs) were distilled from Alfalfa Mosaic Virus-free plants. These EOs and one from <i>L. angustifolia</i> Miller were chemically characterised by GC-MS and GC-FID. Antimicrobial activity was evaluated against <i>Listeria monocytogenes</i> (24 strains) and <i>Salmonella enterica</i> (10 food strains). Minimal inhibitory concentrations (MIC) ≥ 10.0 μL/mL inhibited <i>Salmonella</i> (cv ‘R.C.’ was the most active); MIC of 0.3 μL/mL for cv ‘Abrialis’ and ‘R.C.’ inhibited <i>L. monocytogenes</i>, revealing noticeable activity, especially on clinical strains. This activity appears related to EOs composition. Particularly cv ‘Abrialis’ and ‘R.C.’ showing the highest antimicrobial activity, were rich in the specific constituents: linalool (38.17 and 61.98%), camphor (8.97 and 10.30%), 1,8-cineole (6.89 and 8.11%, respectively). These EOs could find potential applications in food biopreservation and in surface decontamination, even in hospitals, and deserve deeper investigations.</p