Differential Relationships of Fear of Fat and Drive for Thinness with Physical Activity, Dietary Behavior, and Camouflaging Tactics

Theoretically, self-perceived fear of fat (FF) and drive for thinness (DT) represent avoidance- and approach-related motivations, respectively, but have little research support. Thus, the purpose of this study was to identify differential correlations of FF and DT with self-views of body dissatisfaction, physical activity (PA), dietary behavior, and body/weight camouflaging (camo) tactics (i.e. avoidance behavior). Adult women (N = 87) currently trying to lose or maintain their body weight completed an anonymous online survey. The 10-item Goldfarb fear of fat scale and the ‘drive for thinness’ factor from the Eating Disorder Inventory I were used to determine FF and DT, respectively. Body dissatisfaction was measured on a five-point scale from extremely satisfied to extremely dissatisfied. PA levels were determined using the Godin Leisure Time physical activity questionnaire, and dietary intake was measured by the food frequency questionnaire by the U.S. National Cancer Institute. Likelihood of using various camouflaging behaviors, including the Camo factor from the WEIGHTCOPE, alongside 16 additional tactics were assessed on a 7-point scale from very unlikely to very likely. Results indicated a strong, positive correlation (.80) between FF and DT. Subsequently, the significant relationships (p \u3c .05) of dissatisfaction with weight, shape, and fat were similar between FF and DT (rs = .44 to .58). However, DT appeared to be more strongly related to body attractiveness (r = -.53) than was FF (r = -.39). The relationship between FF and DT and PA levels and dietary behavior were not significant (rs = .01 to .14, p \u3e .05). These findings suggest that participants might be motivated to control weight, but choose to take an approach that does not lead to regulation of PA and healthy eating. Even though the theory suggests that FF is based on avoidance and DT is more of an approach method, there are positive correlations between both motivation tactics and camouflaging behaviors. For FF, the strongest correlations were seen with general camouflaging behaviors, such as wearing loose clothing (.51), wearing SPANX (.46), using accessories to distract others from weight (.46), and taking pictures in good lighting (.46). For DT, the strongest correlations were seen with wearing SPANX (.56), using accessories to distract others from weight (.52), editing pictures before posting them online (.52), and using filters on pictures before posting online (.52). In conclusion, FF and DT might not represent theoretical motivations of avoidance and approach, respectively, as our results suggest that both perspectives relate similarly to self-views of body dissatisfaction and camouflaging (i.e. avoidance) behavior. In addition, it appears that women might cope with weight related distress in ways other than PA and healthy eating

Destroying God’s temple? Physical Inactivity, Poor Diet, Obesity, and other “Sin” Behaviors

Individual differences in health behavior across religious and spiritual individuals might be attributed to the general belief that the body is God’s temple, and should be treated with care and respect. Also, it is possible that some behaviors are thought to destroy the body (God’s temple), while inactivity, poor diet, and obesity might not be viewed in this way. Thus, our first aim was to assess current beliefs and attitudes regarding the role of physical inactivity, poor diet, and obesity in the destruction of the body, God’s temple. Subsequently, our second aim was to determine if these beliefs and attitudes were correlated with actual, self-reported physical activity, dietary intake, and body mass index (BMI). An online survey assessing the aforementioned variables was administered to 112 adults (≥ 18 years of age) who considered themselves Christians, and had a mean BMI of 26.36 ± 6.29 kg/m2. Participants self-reported their religion with the majority selecting Baptist (29%), other (22%), or Non-Denominational (21%). On average, participants had a moderate-high belief that their body was God’s temple (i.e. manifestation of God in the body; M = 64.84 out of possible score of 84). Mean beliefs that obesity, physically inactive lifestyle, poor diet, and overeating destroy the body, God’s temple were similar to those beliefs regarding drug use, smoking, and excessive drinking, but higher than pre-marital sex, tattoos, body piercings, and lust. When these beliefs were correlated with the manifestation of God in the body, only premarital sex (r = .68), lust (r = .62), tattoos (r = .42), body piercings (r = .38), drug use (r = .26), and smoking (r = .19) were found to be significant (p ≤ .05). Self-perceived manifestation of God in the body was significantly positively correlated (p \u3c .01) with prayer frequency (r = .65), church attendance (r = .67), and spirituality (r = .76). Spirituality was positively correlated (p \u3c .01) with prayer frequency (r = .77) and church attendance (r = .66). However, manifestation of God in the body was not correlated with physical activity, dietary intake, or BMI. In conclusion, our participants were definitive in their belief that physically inactive lifestyles, unhealthy eating, overeating, and being obese destroy the body, God’s temple. However, destroying the body with physical inactivity or poor diet was not necessarily viewed as sinful, on average, with variation in this view. Additionally, these beliefs did not correlate to self-reported physical activity, dietary behavior, and body weight (i.e. BMI). Also, the view that one’s body is God’s temple (i.e. manifestation of God in the body) did not correlate to beliefs that physical inactivity, poor diet and obesity destroy the body, but did relate to beliefs that premarital sex, lust, tattoos, body piercings, drug use, and smoking destroy the body. It is possible, then, that physical inactivity, poor dietary habits, and obesity are not internalized into the spiritual perspective as destroying the body, God’s temple, in the same way as other “sin” behaviors. Such findings provide a foundation for future research to expand our understanding of the confluence of health and spiritual lifestyles

The Experience of Weight Control, Exercise and Healthy Eating in Medically Triggered Patients

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Differential Relationships of Fear of Fat and Drive for Thinness with Body Dissatisfaction, Dietary Intake, and Supplement Behaviors in Athletes

The current research on healthy and unhealthy self-views and behaviors in athletes is extremely limited, with little insight into factors that represent important individual differences and correlate to behavioral choices – including dietary choices and supplement use. Thus, the purpose of this study was to extend our understanding by examining the differential associations between the fear of fat (FF; an avoidance motivation) and drive for thinness (DT; an approach motivation) with self-views of body dissatisfaction, dietary intake, and supplement- and physique-related behaviors, in a sample of competitive athletes. Seventy-six active women (n = 59) and men (n = 17), aged 18-61 years of age (26.97 ± 9.74) completed an online survey. Participants were required to associate themselves as a recreational, collegiate, or professional athlete to participate in the survey. A five-point scale from 1 (extremely satisfied) to 5 (extremely dissatisfied) was used to assess body dissatisfaction. The Goldfarb FF scale and the DT subscale from the Eating Disorder Inventory were used to determine FF and DT, respectively. Dietary intake was measured using the U.S. National Cancer Institute food frequency questionnaire. A previously established measure assessed various dietary supplement behaviors and physique concern behaviors, indicating use from 0 to 7 days per week. Results indicated a strong correlation (r = .76) between FF and DT, suggesting that they could be similar constructs and commonly pursued (or not) at the same time by athletes. Moderate correlations were found between DT and FF with body dissatisfaction, with DT showing the strongest significant (p ≤ .01) relationships with dissatisfaction with body weight (.52), body shape (.56), body fat (.59), muscle tone (.40), and muscle size (.44). Interestingly, DT correlated negatively with dietary intake of animal-based foods (-.30, p ≤ 0.01) and processed food consumption (-.28, p ≤ 0.05), and a trend with plant-based foods (-.22, p = .06). DT or FF did not correlate with general supplement behaviors, such as taking dietary supplements, drinking protein shakes, or using steroids. However, both DT and FF did significantly relate (p ≤ .01) with physique concern behaviors of body symmetry (.35 vs. .39, respectively) and wearing baggy clothes (.56 vs. .54, respectively). In conclusion, DT does appear to be more indicative of body dissatisfaction in athletes than FF. The negative relationship of DT with dietary intake might indicate risk of an overall decline in food quantity and caloric intake, the greater an athlete’s drive to be thin. General supplement use behaviors were not related with either DT or FF, but were likely due to a total sample average of only 1.88 supplements used per week within groups. Nonetheless, with little disparity, certain physique control behaviors were related to both DT and FF scores. Thus, assessing FF and DT in athletes can be a novel and useful correlate and possible predictor of self-views, dietary intake, and physique control behaviors for the practitioner and future research. Future research should also reexamine the ability of FF and DT scales to fully differentiate as theoretically separate constructs to aid in distinguishing individual differences in motivation

The Relationship Health and Attractiveness Self-Ratings with Body Satisfaction and Health Behavior

‘Trigger Theory’ suggests that for a discrepancy to act as a trigger, the discrepancy must be interpreted as a ‘threat’ to an important self-concept or self-view. Triggering events have been cited as important sparks for weight loss and control behaviors in women, but only certain discrepancies result in a triggering event. The purpose for this study was to determine if there was a relationship between self-rated attractiveness and health with body mass index (BMI) self-esteem, weight satisfaction, dietary intake, and physical activity (PA). A relationship would indicate a role of both attractiveness and health self-views in self-concept and self-esteem, thus preferred self-views to examine in the future experimental research of Trigger Theory. Online surveys were distributed to 461 women who wanted to lose or maintain body weight. The surveys included self-reports of height and weight, which were used to calculate BMI. Self-ratings of attractiveness and health were developed from the Self-Conceptions Questionnaire, asking participants to rate their own physical attractiveness and physical health relative to others her age and gender. Responses ranged from bottom 5% to top 5%. The Global PA Questionnaire assessed PA, and only the total minutes per week of moderate to vigorous PA were used in the study. Dietary intake was assessed through a food frequency questionnaire, where foods were averaged into two factors of interests, fruits/vegetables and high fat/high sugar foods. Weight satisfaction was determined using a 5- point scale from 1 (extremely dissatisfied) to 5 (extremely satisfied). For global self-esteem, women rated how strongly they agreed or disagreed with, “I see myself as someone who has high self-esteem,” on a 5-point scale from 1 (strongly disagree) to 5 (strongly agree). Both self-ratings of attractiveness and health positively correlated with weight satisfaction and self-esteem. The higher one’s self-rating of attractiveness and health, the higher her satisfaction with weight and self-esteem. In addition, self-ratings of attractiveness and health were negatively correlated with BMI. These results support the theory that self-ratings can be greatly valued factors that, when threatened, become the motivators needed to influence changes in health behaviors. The weak correlation of PA and dietary intake with self-views of health suggests that those who see themselves as healthy in comparison to others their age (a part of their self-concept) might be more active and eat healthier. The lack of correlation of PA and dietary intake with self-views of attractiveness suggests that there is no relationship between how attractive one thinks she is, and how active she is or how healthy she eats. It is possible, then, that women can maintain or improve how attractive they think they are without engaging in healthy behaviors, such as through camouflaging their body with clothes and other methods

Body Composition and Body Satisfaction in Adult Men and Women

Objective: The purpose of this study was to determine the strongest relationships and predictors of self-perceived weight/body composition dissatisfaction from various body anthropometric measures. Hypotheses were that, 1) men (M) and women (W) with an overall higher percentage of body fat would exhibit greater weight dissatisfaction, and 2) that W would experience a greater dissatisfaction than M. Methods: A convenience cohort of 1404 participants (642 M and 762 W), 18-75 yrs of age (30.6 ± 12.4 yrs), ranked their satisfaction with their weight/body composition on a Likert scale of 1 to 5 (1= very satisfied, 2 = satisfied, 3 = somewhat satisfied/somewhat dissatisfied, 4= dissatisfied, 5 = very dissatisfied). If not satisfied or very satisfied, participants were asked “what would make you satisfied?” Responses included: no choice, gain weight and/or muscle, lose 5-10 lbs., lose 10-15 lbs., lose 15-25 lbs., lose more than 25 lbs., be within recommended BF% range, and other. Their total and regional body composition was then measured using dual-energy x-ray absorptiometry (DXA) at the Fitness Institute of Texas. Results: Spearman correlations were used to compare dissatisfaction ratings and body composition measures. Most body composition variables were significantly correlated (p \u3c 0.01) with dissatisfaction. The highest correlations for W were: total fat mass (FM) (0.60), android FM (0.58), trunk FM (0.58), and BMI (0.58). For M the highest correlations were: android fat% (0.55), android FM (0.55), android mass (0.55), total fat % (0.55) and trunk fat % (0.55). All lean mass measures had the lowest correlation with dissatisfaction for M (0.03 – 0.19) and W (0.18 – 0.28). At all body composition levels, more W than M were dissatisfied with their weight/body composition. Stepwise ordinal regression, with dissatisfaction as the outcome variable and DXA variables as predictors, determined that total fat, BMI and age explained 19.7% of the variation in the dissatisfaction of W, while android fat % and lean arm mass accounted for 16.3% of the variation in M (p \u3c 0.05). Of those dissatisfied, 19.2% of W and 42.5% of M wanted to “gain weight and/or muscle,” while 80.8% of W and 57.5% of M wanted to lose weight. Conclusion: In general, as total or regional body fat increases, so does weight/body composition dissatisfaction. At all levels of body composition, more W than M were dissatisfied with their weight/body composition. Of those dissatisfied, most participants wanted to lose weight instead of gain weight/muscle; however, more W than M want to lose weight, and more M than W want to gain weight/muscle. Body composition measures accounted for only a modest amount of self-perceived dissatisfaction; therefore further research should investigate factors beyond the physical that may better predict body dissatisfaction and better understand body image perceptions to develop individual strategies that encourage the adoption of healthy behaviors that promote an overall better quality of life

Evaluation of the Nike+ FuelBand in energy expenditure and steps taken during exercise

ABSTRACT PURPOSE: To assess the accuracy of the Nike+ FuelBand for estimating energy expenditure and steps taken during exercise. METHODS: Twenty subjects (age = 22.8 ± 2.4 yrs; body mass index = 24.9 ± 2.6 m/kg2) performed a progressive, three-interval treadmill test at three different speeds (2.0, 3.5, and 5.0 mph) with a 0% grade. Each stage lasted 8 min, with 3-min rest between intervals. Subjects wore the Nike+ FuelBand on the left wrist. Energy expenditure and steps were estimated by using its proprietary algorithm, and then compared with energy expenditure determined from indirect calorimetry and manual step count, which served as criterion measures. RESULTS: The Nike+ FuelBand significantly overestimated total energy expenditure by 31.1 kcal during the 5.0 mph interval (108.2 ± 29.4 kcal versus 77.0 ± 18.1 kcal, respectively; p \u3c .001). No differences were found between the Nike+ FuelBand and indirect calorimetry at 2.0 mph stage (26.8 ± 8.3 kcal versus 26.1 ± 6.2 kcal, respectively; p ≥ .05) or 3.5 mph stage (37.0 ± 10.5 steps versus 39.26 ± 8.80 steps, respectively; p ≥ .05). Concerning steps taken, the Nike+ FuelBand significantly underestimated steps compared to a manual count at the lower speed of 2.0 mph (321.8 ± 235.4 steps versus 760.3 ± 44.8 steps, respectively; p \u3c .001) No differences (p ≥ .05) were found at 3.5 mph (845.0 ± 210.5 steps versus 952.6 ± 60.44 steps, respectively) or 5.0 mph (1222 ± 61.5 steps versus 1239 ± 143.5 steps, respectively). CONCLUSIONS: The Nike+ FuelBand appears to provide an accurate assessment of energy expenditure at 2.0 mph and 3.5 mph, a common self-selected walking intensity range, but overestimates at a higher speed of 5.0 mph. The Nike+ FuelBand also appears to provide an accurate assessment of steps at speeds of 3.5 mph and 5.0 mph, but underestimates at 2.0 mph, most likely due to variation in arm swing motion during walking. Key Words: Indirect Calorimetry, Energy Expenditure, Physical Activit

Affective Responses to Common Fitness Testing in College-Aged Women

Fitness testing provides awareness of discrepancy from normative standards and is a major component in most health, medical, and wellness settings. This discrepancy may have an effect on an individual’s desire to change or maintain particular health behaviors. PURPOSE: The purpose of the present study was to examine the affective responses to discrepancies from normative data across six standard fitness tests. METHODS: Forty-eight college-aged women were presented with their discrepancy from a normative standard across standard fitness tests for body fat, body shape, aerobic fitness, muscular strength, muscular endurance, and flexibility. RESULTS: Findings support previous conceptualizations on perceived discrepancies and affective responses: greater negative discrepancies from a normative standard in common fitness tests are associated with greater changes in negative feeling states. However, feeling more negative about a discrepancy does not guarantee a specific change in frustration-anger, which is theorized to relate to increased effort to reduce a discrepancy. Only three tests related to such responses, body fat (r=.46, p\u3c.01), aerobic fitness (r=.41, p\u3c.01), and muscular endurance (r=.34, p\u3c.05), perhaps due to their perceived threat to one’s global physical self-worth. CONCLUSION: Only discrepancies from body fat, aerobic fitness, and muscular endurance norms produced a change in feeling state which may in turn affect future behavior. Future research should examine how affective response could have positive or negative impacts on future behavior to reduce the perceived discrepancy, in addition to why particular discrepancies may be linked to physical self-worth, and not others

Executive Function Relationships to Sitting Time and Physical Activity: A Pilot Study

Executive function (EF) refers to the neurocognitive perspective of supervisory abilities to self-regulate during goal-direct behavior. More specifically, the ability to attend to and inhibit dominant responses (i.e. Attention/Inhibition) has been found to moderate the intention and physical activity (PA) relationship, yet does not appear to relate to PA. However, this EF is related to other health behaviors, such as smoking and alcohol consumption (i.e. behaviors to be inhibited). The lack of relationship to PA might be due to it being a behavior that is not to be inhibited, compared to a behavior that should be inhibited (e.g. sitting time). PURPOSE: To compare relationships of various executive functions to physical activity and sitting time. METHODS: Sixteen college-aged males (n=5) and females (n=11) (Age = 22.38±1.26 years; BMI = 25.57±7.58 kg/m2) completed the study. At time 1, participants provided demographics, self-reported PA (IPAQ-SF), and were asked to wear a Yamax Digiwalker SW-200 pedometer for 7 days to assess normal, PA in average steps/day (week 1). At time 2, three executive functions were assessed via computer-based tasks: Attention/Inhibition (Stroop task), Planning/Problem Solving (Tower of London), and Working Memory (Corsi Block Task). Participants were provided with a goal 50% greater than their week 1 average step/day count, and all intended to meet this goal over the following 7 days (week 2). RESULTS: On average, participants self-reported 496.88±142.72 min/day of sitting, and had an average step count of 7744.31±2900.20 steps/day for week 1. The average step change across week 2 was +2245.31±1102.32 steps/day – falling short of their prescribed step goal by ~1627 steps/day. Attention/Inhibition was positively related to sitting time (r = .61, p \u3c .01), and Planning/Problem Solving was the only EF related to change in steps from week 1 to week 2 (r = -.53, p \u3c .05). No other EFs related to sitting time, moderate- or vigorous-intensity PA. CONCLUSION: The present pilot data supports our initial hypothesis that Attention/Inhibition executive abilities are related to sedentary time, such as sitting, but not PA. To guide future research, Planning/Problem Solving was the only EF to be related PA, while Working Memory was not related to any PA outcomes

Is Pregnancy-Associated Melanoma Associated with Adverse Outcomes?

BACKGROUND: Melanoma is the most common malignancy encountered during pregnancy. Conflicting data have led to ongoing confusion regarding pregnancy-associated melanoma (PAM) in the media and among the public. The objective of this study was to better characterize both the clinical presentation of PAM and its prognostic implications. STUDY DESIGN: Female patients of reproductive age, with stage 0 to IV cutaneous melanoma, were identified from our prospectively maintained database. Clinical and histopathologic factors were analyzed with appropriate statistical methods. Univariable and then multivariable analysis were used on matched data to compare disease-free survival (DFS), overall survival (OS), and melanoma-specific survival (MSS) for stage 0-III PAMs vs non-PAMs. Kaplan-Meier survival curves were then plotted for OS and MSS and compared using the log-rank test. RESULTS: The clinical presentation of melanoma was similar for PAM and non-PAM patients. There was no significant difference in recurrence between the 2 groups; for PAM patients, 38.5% of patients had recurrence, as compared with 36.6% of non-PAM patients (p = 0.641). For PAM patients, median follow-up was 14.6 years (range 0 to 42.6 years) and 11.1 years (0 to 48.5 years) for the non-PAM patients. No significant differences in DFS, MSS, or OS were identified on univariable or multivariable analysis for PAM vs non-PAM patients in stage 0/I/II and stage III cutaneous melanoma, respectively (p = 0.880 DFS, p = 0.219 OS, and p = 0.670 MSS). CONCLUSIONS: We observed no difference in DFS, OS, or MSS between the 2 groups. Pregnant patients should be screened for melanoma in a similar manner to nonpregnant patients and should be counseled that their survival is not adversely affected by their pregnancy