The role of peddling in consumption in modern Europe

After stressing the importance of the market in the survival strategies of European populations, the article highlights the role, nature and structure of the networks of peddlers in pre-industrial Europe. Far from being limited to the distribution of new goods, these networks of peddlers were also agents of change through the circulation of new ideas.Tras haber subrayado la importancia del mercado en las estrategias de supervivencia de las poblaciones europeas, este artículo pone de relieve el papel, la naturaleza y la estructura de las redes de venta a domicilio en la Europa preindustrial. Lejos de limitarse a la distribución de nuevos bienes, estas redes han sido también agentes de cambio mediante la circulación de nuevas ideas

The role of peddling in consumption in modern Europe

After stressing the importance of the market in the survival strategies of European populations, the article highlights the role, nature and structure of the networks of peddlers in pre-industrial Europe. Far from being limited to the distribution of new goods, these networks of peddlers were also agents of change through the circulation of new ideas.Tras haber subrayado la importancia del mercado en las estrategias de supervivencia de las poblaciones europeas, este artículo pone de relieve el papel, la naturaleza y la estructura de las redes de venta a domicilio en la Europa preindustrial. Lejos de limitarse a la distribución de nuevos bienes, estas redes han sido también agentes de cambio mediante la circulación de nuevas ideas

Des services publics toujours essentiels au Québec ?

Les services essentiels doivent être assurés tout en permettant l’exercice légal du droit de grève. Après avoir fait un rappel historique des services essentiels, le présent article étudie l’exercice définitionnel de ces services et tente de mettre en lumière la manière dont est déterminée l’essentialité légale des services à maintenir en cas de grève. Aux termes du Code du travail, il n’existe qu’un seul et unique critère définitionnel des services essentiels, c’est-à-dire la « santé ou sécurité publique ». Mais, depuis peu, comme l’illustre la jurisprudence du Conseil des services essentiels, se dessine une tentative d’extension des services essentiels. L’article présente trois facteurs qui concourent à cette extension.In the event of a legal strike affecting the provision of some public services and the public and parapublic sectors, the parties in the dispute must ensure that the activity is partly maintained due to its critical nature. In other words, the legislator sometimes compels them to provide essential services.This notion exists at both the supra-state and national levels. However, there is no universal legal definition. It is interpreted more or less broadly, depending on the meaning of the concept in use in a particular legal system. In Quebec, the notion of essential services has been constructed over the years. Its history is long and marked by the evolving labour relations in the area of public services and the public and parapublic sectors. It first appeared in the law in 1965 and has continued to evolve ever since: it has become more precise, more refined, but has also expanded. Two important events have marked the history of this notion: the Martin-Bouchard Commission (1978) and the creation of the Conseil des services essentiels (essential services council) (1982).The implementation of essential services gives rise to issues of a political, economic or legal nature. A fundamental legal issue relates to the methods used to define these services. The law stipulates the use of a single criterion to determine essential services, that is, “public health or public safety.” According to the International Labour Organization and the Quebec legislator, essential services are those which when interrupted would endanger the safety or health of a person, in the entire population or in a segment of a population.The Council is the Quebec organization responsible for ensuring protection of the population’s health and safety in the event of a strike. Under this mission, the only relevant criterion it can use is the impact of the provision or non-provision of services on the health and safety of the public. However, the Council can use various subcriteria to determine in a concrete way the essential nature of services, involving, for example, the duration of the strike, the time of year in which the strike takes place, or the characteristics of the services provided. The inconvenience caused by a strike is considered to be normal. Thus, subject to special obligations, the inconvenience, impracticability or discomfort generated by a strike, and its economic impact do not in any way constitute relevant factors in determining the sufficiency of essential services.The Quebec legislation is particularly consistent in this matter. On the one hand, one single definitional criterion is used throughout the process of implementing essential services: from when agreements are worked out between the parties to when they are applied and subsequently controlled. On the other hand, the sole parameter constituted by public health or safety is imposed on very different environments: the health and social services sector, the provision of public services and the civil service. More specifically, it constitutes the basic definitional instrument of the notion of essential services which is adjusted based on the specific characteristics of each “sector.”The Council’s case law effectively clarifies the idea of an activity’s essential nature. Although, for a long time, public health or safety has been the sole criterion that can be applied and is applied, recent case law reveals several phenomena which tend to increase the number of services maintained in the event of a strike in the public services and the public and parapublic sectors.First, the definitional criterion is interpreted broadly. The examination of case law shows that a greater number of services are today considered to be essential. The disputes in the transportation sector are an apt illustration of this finding. Whereas for about 20 years, the way essential services were defined in public transport involved providing service during the peak hours of the week, they now include bus service during the week-end.Second, a number of provisions in the LabourCode related to institutions in the health network are applied beyond the legal requirements. Thus, two trends have emerged: the voluntary application of percentages of employees to be maintained at work that are higher than those set out by law (section 111.10 LC); and the conventional extension of the scope of application of the law by organizations not specified by the legislator that voluntarily apply the rules imposed on institutions in the health network. The application of the LabourCode beyond the legal requirements can be explained in part by the evolving methods used by the state in the area of health management.Third, new criteria have appeared because of the extension of the Council’s field of jurisdiction. Current practices in the public service show that criteria other than public health or safety are being used. In particular, the parties are using the following criteria: public health or safety, the independence of the judiciary, parliamentary privilege and contingent loss of rights or the fact that university training is now included among the essential services to which anyone is entitled.The appearance of these new criteria is acceptable insofar as it leads to the consideration of the specific characteristics pertaining to each sector that has recently come under the Council’s jurisdiction.Los servicios esenciales deben ser asegurados al mismo tiempo que se permite el ejercicio legal del derecho de huelga. Después de hacer un esbozo histórico de los servicios esenciales, el presente artículo estudia el ejercicio de definición de estos servicios y intenta esclarecer la manera como es determinada la esencialidad legal de los servicios que deben ser mantenidos en caso de huelga. Según los términos del Código del trabajo, existe un solo y único criterio de definición de los servicios esenciales, es decir la “salud o seguridad pública”. Pero desde hace poco, como lo ilustra la jurisprudencia del Consejo de servicios esenciales, se bosqueja una tentativa de extensión de los servicios esenciales. El artículo presenta tres factores que concurren a esta extensión

Choosing cover crops for arable crop rotations (OK-Net Arable Practice abstract)

The tools aim at highlighting the main technical challenges as well as the ways and means of reflection, which can improve the understanding and the implementation of direct sowing into vegetal cover in organic agriculture. Practical recommendation First step: Determining the constraints Considering constraints with regard to suitability of cover crops helps to narrow the number of potential plant species. A first selection refers to the main crops, the intercropping period, dates of sowing and the soil type. Second step: Ranging objectives In a second step, applicable objectives are selected from a proposed list. The species that are best suited to meet the objectives are selected. Third step: Adapting cover crop management In a third step, the methods of sowing and crop termination are taken into account. If the selected species with the best characteristics do not match the available workforce and machinery, species selection is redefined. Fourth step: Final choice The fourth step refers to the selection of a single species or a combination of different species. Seed costs and seed availability on the market or the farm finalize cover crop selectio

Monitoring weed regulation services by carabids (OK-Net Arable Practice abstract)

Preparing the seed cards • Prepare 10 sand paper cards (5 cm x 5 cm) per field and 10 predator exclusion cages with 1 cm squared metal net to avoid predation by mammals and birds. • Glue 10 poppy seeds on each card and place each card within an exclusion cage. Data collection • Collect data twice during the crop cycle, preferably in spring for winter cereals (avoiding drought periods). • Define two transects in the monitored field. Place 5 seed cards with exclusion cage along each transect and nail them into the floor (day D). • Remove them after 4 days of exposure to predators • Count the remaining seeds on each card

Comparison of organic cereal varieties - trial synthesis, triticale, spelt, winter barley, spring wheat, durum wheat, 2019

This tool is a synthesis of variety observations conducted all over France on triticale, spelt, winter barley, spring wheat, durum wheat in organic conditions. It is designed to help farmers to choose varieties that are adapted to organic conditions. The results are gathered and presented species by species and provide a wide range of observed characteristics

Présentations de soi et portraits de groupe : les identités sociales des marchands colporteurs

L’essai propose une réflexion sur la complexité du concept d’identité sociale à partir du cas des marchands migrants dans l’Europe moderne. Il analyse, dans un premier temps, ses emplois par les historiens.  Puis il montre comment les milieux lettrés, les hommes politiques et religieux, les marchands sédentaires et les populations qu’ils fréquentent leur ont imposé des identités. Dans un troisième temps, il s’attache à voir comment les migrants utilisent cette polyphonie de représentations venue de l’extérieur, et à comprendre les marges de manœuvre qu’ils ont pour utiliser à leur profit ces identités qui leur sont imposées.This essay reflets on the complexity of the concept of social identity using a case study of migrant merchants in early modern Europe.  The essay opens with an analysis of historians, usages of this important concept. Then, it attemps to demonstrate how literate society, political and religious officials, sedentary merchants, and the host populations that itinerant merchants passed through all imposed identities on these migrants.  This study attemps to show how migrants used this polyphony of externat représentations and to understand the limits of the merchants, habilite to turn these imposed  identities to their own advantage

Les villageois dans et hors du village. Gestion des conflits et contrôle social des travailleurs migrants originaires des montagnes françaises (fin XVIIe siècle-milieu du XIXe siècle)

The article analyses the different forms of social control practiced on populations of migrant workers according to whether the men are in the village, in transit or at migration sites ; it also takes into consideration the respective social positions of migrants and settled inhabitants. The author begins by identifying and analyzing discrepancies in behaviors between mountain and valley, which are revealed by delinquency and how it is managed, and uses the few matters brought before royal or seignioral courts, as well as a systematic inventory of acts drawn up by notaries, to penetrate the way in which justice was exercized in the village and to grasp how the family, the community and the organization of work impinge, according to the situation, on individuals.L'article propose d'analyser les différentes formes que prend le contrôle social sur les populations de travailleurs migrants selon que les hommes sont au village, en route, ou dans les lieux de la migration, en portant attention aux positions sociales respectives des migrants et des sédentaires. L'analyse part des divergences de comportement telles que les dévoile la délinquance — et la façon dont elle est gérée — au haut et au bas pays et utilise les quelques affaires évoquées devant les cours royales ou seigneuriales, ainsi que le dépouillement systématique des actes notariés pour entrer dans la manière dont la justice s'exerce au village et saisir comment la famille, la communauté et les formes d'organisation du travail agissent, selon les situations, sur les individus

Les imbrications du formel et de l’informel dans la circulation des objets de luxe dans le Paris du xviiie siècle

Je voudrais présenter des circulations peu connues qui pourtant sont au cœur des manières dont les objets de luxe et de mode ont été introduits et ont circulé dans la ville. Jusqu'à présent, l'accent a plus été mis sur l'organisation de la production des objets de luxe et sur les modes de consommation que sur l'activité commerciale proprement dite, même si certains aspects commencent à être éclairés. Étudier l'ensemble des circuits dans lesquels le luxe et la mode interviennent n'est toutefoi..

Design and multicriteria evaluation of regionalized test cases in organic crops without animal production

What are the performances of different stockless organic crops systems? And more specifically, are there rotations more efficient than other for economic, technical and / or environmental criteria? This work aims to present the method of co-construction of simulated cases for an evaluation of economic, environmental and technical performances, at rotation and production system scale. Fifteen «test cases» have been defined in the partner regions of CASDAR projects ROTAB and ProtéAB and evaluated with a set of quantitative and non-aggregated indicators (tool Systerre ®). The results provided many references at different scales. In the current context, profitability was ensured for all cases studied, but the production environment had a major impact on the overall performance. Long rotations with multiannual crop rotation (often alfalfa), sometimes less economically efficient, had strong advantages regarding agricultural sustainability. They also seemed to be less sensitive to changes in economic conditions and provided that the crop harvest was performed by a company, (it requires less work time). The typical cases are upgradeable tools to be adapted to different simulations or prospective studies