Reduced dosages of atrazine and narrow rows can provide adequate weed control in smallholder irrigated maize (Zea mays L.) production in South Africa

An on-farm experiment was conducted in Zanyokwe irrigation scheme to investigate the effects of row spacing (45 and 90 cm) and atrazine dosage (33, 67 and 100% of the label recommended dosage) on weed density and biomass and on maize yield. Overall percent kill of weeds increased with increase in atrazine dosage and with reduction in row spacing. Percent kill varied according to weed species with a 100% kill of broad leaf weeds such as Amaranthus hybridus, Nicandra physaloides and Bidens pilosa regardless of herbicide dosage while Digitaria sanguinalis, Cyperus esculentus, Cynodon dactylon and Oxalis latifolia could not be controlled even at the LRD. Weed density at maize physiological maturity decreased by 11% when row spacing was decreased from 90 to 45 cm. Atrazine dosage and row spacing did not have significant interactive effects and their main effects did not significantly affect weight of green cobs, cob length or grain yield. The study demonstrated the possibility of incorporation of reduced herbicide dosages and narrow rows to achieve adequate weed control and optimise on yields in smallholder farming systems.Key words: Row spacing, reduced atrazine dosages, weed density, weed biomass, maize yield

Evaluation of various substrates and supplements for biological efficiency of Pleurotus sajor-caju and Pleurotus ostreatus

An experiment was conducted to determine the effects of different substrates namely wheat straw (Triticum aestivum), maize stover (Zea mays L), thatch grass (Hyparrhenia filipendula) and oil/protein rich supplements (maize bran, cottonseed hull [Gossypium hirsutum]) on biological efficiency of two oyster mushroom species (Pleurotus sajor-caju and P. ostreatus). Wheat straw had superior performance over maize stover and thatch grass when cultivating P. sajor-caju. However, maize stover was more suitable for P. ostreatus than wheat straw. Supplementation with cottonseed hull improved yields when cultivating P. ostreatus using wheat straw. These findings suggest that at 25% inclusion rate, farmers should not supplement with maize bran, as this would reduce yields significantly. Further investigations are needed to test both lower and higher rates of inclusion of supplements

Water Footprint of Table Grape Production Systems: A Review of South African and Global Studies

Being a water-scarce country, South Africa (SA) faces several water challenges, including drought andother effects of climate change. Therefore, there is a need to improve water-use efficiency (WUE) by accuratelyquantifying the water use and WUE of table grape vineyards. The objective of this review is to (i)provide an overview of water footprint (WF) studies conducted on table grape production systems in SAand globally; (ii) identify limitations in current WF assessments of table grape production systems; and(iii) establish a range of WF values for table grape production systems as an indicator of WUE and for usein decision-making regarding sustainable freshwater use. The review has demonstrated that only a limitednumber of detailed WF studies have been undertaken on table grapes in SA and globally. Region-specificlookup tables for quantifying blue, green and grey water use in table grape production systems are availablefor three table grape production regions of SA and could be used for future WF assessments. Mostglobal studies conducted on grape WF and WUE were desktop studies and did not include actual fieldrecords from production units, nor did they distinguish between different grape types (table, raisin andwine grapes). WF values must be interpreted in context, specifically regarding the water used versus yield,quality and income, as well as the region, climatic conditions, soil characteristics, irrigation and cultivationpractices. For future WF and WUE assessments, a more detailed breakdown of water use is recommended,both during the production process and postharvest

Classification and characterisation of smallholder farmers in South Africa: a brief review

The South African agricultural sector has experienced various transformation processes over the past 25 years, from a predominantly white commercial sector to a black focused sector with an emphasis on smallholder farming. The government is committed to supporting the smallholder farming sector through interventions that include land reform and access to water, amongst others. Despite these efforts, smallholder farmers remain vulnerable, especially during drought periods. Smallholder farmers are not homogeneous; instead, they are diverse, and their farming needs also differ according to their livelihood needs. Due to the diversity of smallholder farmers, it is difficult for the government to effectively respond to their needs. The 2015–2018 drought is a case in point. This paper assesses the challenges of defining and classifying smallholder farmers in South Africa. The complex Western Cape classification system is presented as a case study. The study concludes that there is a need for a simpler method of grouping the smallholder farmers based on their livelihoods to develop relevant support systems

Support Services to Smallholder Farmers During the 2015-2018 Drought in the Overberg and West Coast Districts, South Africa

The recent 2015 to 2018 drought that hit South Africa negatively affected agricultural communities, the worst being smallholder farmers who generally lack livelihood resources. The study assessed the characteristics of smallholder farmers in two districts in the Western Cape. It explored the roles and effectiveness of public and private sector extension institutions in supporting smallholder farmers during drought periods. The livelihoods approach characterised 100 smallholder farmers from the Overberg and West Coast districts. Atlas.ti software was used to analyse qualitative data. Key variables that determined farmer differentiation included the level of education and livelihood trajectories. Access to markets and credit enabled improved livelihoods. The findings also revealed that the government continues to be reactive to drought disasters and only focuses on the immediate needs of relief for farmers, which in most circumstances was too late and insufficient. Implementing the Norms and Standards for Agricultural Extension Services and the Extension Recovery Plan enhanced the effectiveness of extension services. The private sector should be encouraged to comply equally with the legal framework for extension services. It is recommended that the South African government should empower and promote rigorous public-private partnerships that aim to improve service delivery

Smallholder farmer coping and adaptation strategies during the 2015-18 drought in the Western Cape, South Africa

Smallholder farmers are vulnerable and hardest hit by droughts in Africa. One of the main causes of the increased vulnerability is limited access to resources resulting in limited drought preparedness. The heterogeneous nature of smallholder farmers means that they deal with droughts differently. Responses to drought are context-specific depending on the socio-economic, political, and cultural dimensions, which make it difficult to generalize. However, information on smallholder farmer drought perceptions, impacts on livelihoods, and the way droughts are dealt with at farm-level is scarce and mostly site-specific. This paper presents the findings from a study conducted in the Western Cape Province, in South Africa. The main objective of the study was to assess the impacts of the 2015-18 drought on the smallholder farmer livelihoods, and the coping and adaptation strategies adopted. The Sustainable Livelihoods Approach was used to frame questions on the coping mechanisms used by farmers, and any other strategies developed to adapt to future droughts. The study adopted the qualitative research design and focused on 112 smallholder farmers in two districts. Face-to-face interviews and focus group discussions were used to collect data, which was analysed using Atlas. ti 8.1 for Windows. The results showed that ownership of assets and support from private and public organisations facilitates better coping and adaptation to drought. There were social networks in farmer groups, but their benefits did not go beyond the members. Further research is required to determine the best models of support to smallholder farmers to empower them for adaption to future droughts