Transrectal ultrasonography of the adrenal glands in donkeys (Equus asinus)

Little information is available for medical imaging in donkeys and no report about adrenal glands ultrasonography can be found in scientific literature. The feasibility of transrectal ultrasonography of the adrenal glands was tested on 30 healthy donkeys using a 10 MHz linear transducer. Mean age of animals was 10.7 ±4.8 years, mean weight 275.0 ±62.9 Kg and mean height 126.7 ±7.1 cm. The left adrenal gland was visualized in all donkeys. The right gland ultrasonography was not feasible in seven animals with a height less than 116 cm. The left gland was visualized as a linear or slightly curved structure, the right gland was most often S-shaped. In both glands, an hypechoic peripheral zone was identified as the cortex with an inner, hyperechoic medulla. The length was 5.49 ±1.90 cm and 5.15 ±1.10 cm for right and left gland, respectively. Right gland whole and medullary thickness were 0.71 ±0.11 cm and 0.24 ±0.09 cm, 0.65 ±0.13 cm and 0.21 ±0.07 cm, 0.56 ±0.17 cm and 0.25 ±0.07 cm for cranial pole, middle point and caudal pole respectively. Left gland whole and medullary thickness were 0.69 ±0.13 cm and 0.25 ±0.09 cm, 0.66 ±0.13 cm and 0.23 ±0.09 cm, 0.57 ±0.15 cm and 0.26 ±0.09 cm for cranial pole, middle point and caudal pole respectively. There was a significant correlation between height and the entire length of the left gland. Ultrasonography of the adrenal glands is a suitable tool for evaluation of both adrenal glands in most of the donkey. The size is a limiting factor for proper visualization of the right gland

Effects of Single-Dose Prucalopride on Intestinal Hypomotility in Horses: Preliminary Observations

Abnormalities of gastrointestinal motility are often a challenge in horses; however, the use of prokinetic drugs in such conditions must be firmly established yet. For this reason we carried out a preliminary study on the effects of prucalopride on intestinal motor activity of horses with gut hypomotility. The effect of prucalopride per os by oral dose syringe (2 mg/100 kg body weight) was assessed by abdominal ultrasound (evaluating duodenal, cecal, and colonic motor activity) in six horses with gut hypomotility. After administration of prucalopride, a significant increase of contractile activity was found in the duodenum at 30 minutes (p = 0.0005), 60 minutes (p = 0.01) and 90 minutes (p = 0.01), whereas in the cecum and in the left colon the increase was only present at 60 minutes (p = 0.03, and p = 0.02, respectively). No changes from baseline heart and respiratory rate or behavior side effects were observed after administration of the drug and throughout the observation period. Prucalopride may be a useful adjunct to the therapeutic armamentary for treating hypomotile upper gut conditions of horses. Dosing information is however needed to establish its actual clinical efficacy and its proper effects on the large bowel in these animals

Pharmacokinetic profiles of the active metamizole metabolites in healthy horses

Metamizole (MT) is an analgesic and antipyretic drug labelled for use in humans, horses, cattle, swine and dogs. MT is rapidly hydrolysed to the active primary metabolite 4-methylaminoantipyrine (MAA). MAA is formed in much larger amounts compared with other minor metabolites. Among other secondary metabolites, 4-aminoantipyrine (AA) is also relatively active. The aim of this research was to evaluate the pharmacokinetic profiles of MAA and AA after dose of 25 mg/kg MT by intravenous (i.v.) and intramuscular (i.m.) routes in healthy horses. Six horses were randomly allocated to two equally sized treatment groups according to a 2 9 2 crossover study design. Blood was collected at predetermined times within 24 h, and plasma was analysed by a validated HPLC-UV method. No behavioural changes or alterations in health parameters were observed in the i.v. or i.m. groups of animals during or after (up to 7 days) drug administration. Plasma concentrations of MAA after i.v. and i.m. administrations of MT were detectable from 5 min to 10 h in all the horses. Plasma concentrations of AA were detectable in the same range of time, but in smaller amounts. Maximum concentration (Cmax), time to maximum concentration (Tmax) and AUMC0-last of MAA were statistically different between the i.v. and i.m. groups. The AUCIM/AUCIV ratio of MAA was 1.06. In contrast, AUC0-last of AA was statistically different between the groups (P < 0.05) with an AUCIM/AUCIV ratio of 0.54. This study suggested that the differences in the MAA and AA plasma concentrations found after i.m. and i.v. administrations of MT might have minor consequences on the pharmacodynamics of the drug

Clinical investigation on Theileria equi and Babesia caballi infections in Italian donkeys

Background: Interest in the welfare and diseases of donkeys is constantly increasing in several countries. Despite this, clinical research into donkeys needs to be in continual development since they show different reactions compared to horses in many conditions, including infectious diseases, and need specific clinical and therapeutic approaches. No reports are currently available on clinical and clinical pathology data regarding donkeys with natural piroplasms infection. Results: Venous blood samples were taken from one hundred and thirty eight donkeys and underwent indirect fluorescent antibody test (IFAT) to detect IgG antibodies against Theileria equi and Babesia caballi and real-time polimerase chain reaction (PCR) to detect Babesia spp. and Theileria spp.. Clinical examinations, haematological analyses and serum bilirubin evaluation were also performed and compared with positive or negative status. A seroprevalence of 40.6% and 47.8% was found for T. equi and B. caballi, respectively; double positivity was detected in 19.6% of the animals. PCR results showed that 17.4% of the animals tested positive for T.equi and 3.6% for B. caballi with no double positivity. Twelve donkeys (8.7%) had clinical signs consistent with chronic forms of the disease and no acute forms were detected. Fifty-eight donkeys had haematological and serum bilirubin alterations and 56 (96.6%) of them were IFAT and/or PCR positive. Changes in erythrocyte number, packed cell volume, hemoglobin concentration, mean corpuscular hemoglobin, platelets number and total bilirubin were significantly associated with positive and symptomatic animals. Conclusion: Nonspecific clinical presentation seems to be very common in donkeys and several clinical pathology alterations persist after natural infection. Therefore, apparently healthy donkeys can have masked but severe clinical pathology alterations. Acute forms are very seldom observed in donkeys. Clinical monitoring of chronically infected donkeys is recommended since such animals represent a risk both for transmission to other animals and for their own health; furthermore, their production performances could be reduced. The study should also be intended as a contribution for veterinary practitioners because it describes the most usual clinical presentations and laboratory findings of equine piroplasmosis in naturally infected donkeys in endemic areas

Conjunctival bacterial and fungal flora in healthy donkeys in Central Italy

Introduction - The normal eye microflora is composed of several species of fungi and bacteria. If the ocular defense barriers become weak, they can act as pathogens and cause infections. Therefore, characterization of conjunctival normal flora is essential in making diagnosis and treating eye infections. Bacterial and fungal flora of the normal eye has been reported for different mammals but few studies concerning donkeys are available. Aim - To evaluate the bacterial and fungal flora of healthy eyes of donkeys (Equus asinus) reared in three different Areas in Central Italy. Materials and methods - One hundred-fourteen mixed breed donkeys (93 females, 21 males) housed in Marche, Umbria and Lazio Region were included in the study and sampled on the ventral conjunctival fornix. Age ranged between 4 months and 16 years (mean: 7.3 years, SD ± 8.6). Animals were divided into three categories: foals: ≤ 1 year, n = 35; young: 1 < age ≤3 years, n = 9; and adult: ≥ 3 years, n = 70. Results and discussion - Twenty-one different bacteria genus and thirteen fungi/yeasts were isolated. The emergent Kocuria spp. was isolated in 61 cases. None significant effect of gender on bacterial and fungal isolation was observed. Significantly lower bacterial load was recorded in foals than adult donkeys. In relation to the Areas, differences were observed both for bacterial and fungal mean loads. Conclusion - The area in which donkeys are reared seems to be a significant factor influencing the conjunctival bacterial and fungal flora loads. The emerging human pathogen bacteria Kocuria spp. was isolated for the first time in donkeys. In the present study, new important information to facilitate the diagnosis of eye disease in an emergent species like donkeys are provided

Pharmacokinetic Evaluations of Sulpiride After Intravenous, Intramuscular, and Oral Single-Dose Administration in Jennies (Equus asinus)

Sulpiride is an antipsychotic human drug. It is commonly used to encourage ovulation in noncycling mares and to stimulate lactation in adoptive mares. No pharmacokinetic data are available for donkeys. The aim of this study was to assess the pharmacokinetics profile of sulpiride after intravenous (IV), intramuscular (IM), and oral (PO) administrations in healthy jennies. Animals (n ¼ 6) were treated with sulpiride, 1 mg/kg by IV, IM, and PO routes according to a randomized cross-over design (3 3 Latin square). Blood samples (5 mL) were collected at predetermined times and analyzed using a validated high performance liquid chromatography with fluorescence detection method. IV and IM administrations gave similar curves, but they were not bioequivalent. The IM average bioavailability was 73.5%. After PO administration, the drug plasma concentrations were low and consequently both area under the curve and bioavailability (9.4%) were low. This finding could be because of the physicochemical features of the drug. Indeed, considering that sulpiride is a weak base, existing in the ionized form at gastric and physiological pH, it is unsurprising that it is poorly absorbable, especially in equine species whose gastric pH is particularly acidic. In conclusion, injective routes are definitely preferable to PO dosing because of the very low F% via this route

Transrectal ultrasonography of the adrenal glands in donkeys (Equus asinus)

Little information is available for medical imaging in donkeys and no report about adrenal glands ultrasonography can be found in scientific literature. The feasibility of transrectal ultrasonography of the adrenal glands was tested on 30 healthy donkeys using a 10 MHz linear transducer. Mean age of animals was 10.7 ±4.8 years, mean weight 275.0 ±62.9 Kg and mean height 126.7 ±7.1 cm. The left adrenal gland was visualized in all donkeys. The right gland ultrasonography was not feasible in seven animals with a height less than 116 cm. The left gland was visualized as a linear or slightly curved structure, the right gland was most often S-shaped. In both glands, an hypechoic peripheral zone was identified as the cortex with an inner, hyperechoic medulla. The length was 5.49 ±1.90 cm and 5.15 ±1.10 cm for right and left gland, respectively. Right gland whole and medullary thickness were 0.71 ±0.11 cm and 0.24 ±0.09 cm, 0.65 ±0.13 cm and 0.21 ±0.07 cm, 0.56 ±0.17 cm and 0.25 ±0.07 cm for cranial pole, middle point and caudal pole respectively. Left gland whole and medullary thickness were 0.69 ±0.13 cm and 0.25 ±0.09 cm, 0.66 ±0.13 cm and 0.23 ±0.09 cm, 0.57 ±0.15 cm and 0.26 ±0.09 cm for cranial pole, middle point and caudal pole respectively. There was a significant correlation between height and the entire length of the left gland. Ultrasonography of the adrenal glands is a suitable tool for evaluation of both adrenal glands in most of the donkey. The size is a limiting factor for proper visualization of the right gland

Effect of Thiamine Pyrophosphate (Bicarbossilasi®) Administration on the Exercising Horse Metabolism

Thiamine pyrophosphate (TPP) is the phosphorylated and active form of thiamine (Vitamin B1). We hypothesized that the administration of thiamine in its immediately available active form could provide the metabolic pathways for a supplement able to promote the metabolism of ketoacids and to reduce lactate accumulation in exercising horses. Ten horses were conditioned for 20 days to daily standardized exercise. All horses underwent a first “stress test” (ST) consisting in 1,200 meters at maximum speed on track, and were checked before and after for clinical and clinical pathology parameters. After the ST, the same animals were administered TPP (Bicarbossilasi®, ©Teknofarmas.p.a., Torino, Italy), 1 mg/Kg b.w., I.V., twice daily for seven days. At the end of treatment, a second stress test (STTPP) was performed. Post-exercise serum lactate concentration resulted in significantly lower levels (p< 0.05) after treatment with TPP (ST vs STTPP). These data suggest that supplementation with thiamine in its active form improves glucose metabolism and prevents lactate accumulation in muscle, enhancing aerobic capacity and metabolic pathways of glucose utilization during exercise

Urine Osmolal Gap in Healthy Horses

The urine osmolality is a direct measure of the number of particles and represents the measurement of the density of the urine concentration as expression of the function of the tubular component of the nephron. In some pathological conditions in urine appear large solutes such as proteins (nephrotic syndrome) and glucose (diabetes mellitus) and urine specific gravity may differ significantly from osmolality, leading the clinician to wrong diagnostic conclusions. Such direct measurement of the urinary density is mainly affected by the presence of urinary salts and from urea and glucose, the most represented metabolites. Dosage of these constituents can estimate the urinary osmolality measured by special osmometers. Under physiological conditions the measured and calculated osmolality are quite similar and are only slightly different (urine osmolal gap, UOG). In pathological conditions UOG can rise because of the presence of unmeasured anions such as ketoacids (acetoacetate, beta-hydroxybutyrate), bicarbonates and organic acids of intestinal derivation (D-Lactate). The aim of this study was to establish the reference ranges of urine osmolal gap in horses