Human Metabolism Of Polyphenols From Extra Virgin Olive Oil

It is well established that food is not considered to be mere nutritional components for maintaining human life. There are a broad number of studies reporting that many foods may provide a health benefit beyond basic nutrition. Within this context, extra virgin olive oil (EVOO) has been related to the prevention of some types of cancers and the reduced risk of coronary heart diseases. This is mainly due to its high concentration of a broad variety of phenolic compounds, such as phenyl ethyl alcohols (tyrosol, hydroxytyrosol), phenolic acids (4-hydroxybenzoic acid, 3,4-dihydroxybenzoic acid, gallic acid, vanillic acid, ferulic acid, caffeic acid), flavonoids (apigenin, luteolin), secoiridoids (oleuropein and ligstroside aglycons) and lignans [(+)-pinoresinol, (+)-acetoxypinoresinol)]. In the human organism these polyphenols are metabolized and form different compounds. Thus the study of their properties is highly important with regards to understanding their functionality. The aglycones can be absorbed from the mall intestine; however, most polyphenols are in the form of esters, glycosides, or polymers that cannot be absorbed in their native form. Thus, these compounds must be hydrolyzed by intestinal enzymes or by colonic microflora in order to be absorbed. During the course of absorption, polyphenols are conjugated in the small intestine and later in the liver, through methylation, sulfation, and glucuronidation reactions. In the blood, polyphenols are conjugated derivatives bound to albumin. They penetrate into tissues where they are metabolized and then eliminated in urine and bile. For example, hydroxytyrosol shows strong antioxidant activity. In spite of this compound's great absorption capacity in the human body, its bioavailability is low. It is reported in the literature that the oleuropeins are not absorbed in the small intestine, but instead, quickly degradated in the large intestine to yield hydroxytyrosol. © 2012 Nova Science Publishers, Inc. All rights reserved.249258Bai, C., Yan, X., Takenga, M., Sekiya, K., Nagata, T., Determination of synthetic hydroxytyrosol in rat plasma by CG-MS (1998) Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry, 46, pp. 3998-4001Bendini, A., Cerretani, L., Carrasco-Pancorbo, A., Gómez-Caravaca, A.M., Segura-Carretero, A., Fernández-Gutiérrez, A., Lercker, G., Phenolic Molecules in Virgin Olive Oils: a Survey of Their Sensory Properties, Health Effects, Antioxidant Activity and Analytical Methods. An Overview of the Last Decade (2007) Molecules, 12, pp. 1679-1719Bermúdez, B., Pacheco, Y.M., López, S., Abia, R., Muriana, F.J.G., Digestion and absorption of olive oil (2004) Grasas y Aceites, 55, pp. 1-10Bisignano, G., Tomaino, A., Lo Cascio, R., Crisafi, G., Uccella, N., Saija, A., On the in-vitro antiomicrobial activity of oleuropein and hydroxytyrosol (1999) The Journal of Pharmacy and Pharmacology, 31, pp. 971-974Boskou, D., Olive oil (2000) World Review of Nutrition and Dietetics, 87, pp. 56-77Corona, G., Tzounis, X., Assunta-Dessa, M., Deiana, M., Debnam, E.S., Visioli, F., The fate of olive oil polyphenols in the gastrointestinal tract: implications of gastric and colonic microflora-dependent biotransformation (2006) Free Radical Research, 40, pp. 647-658D'Angelo, S., Manna, C., Migliardi, V., Mazzoni, O., Morrica, P., Capasso, G., Pharmacokinetics and metabolism of hydroxytyrosol, a natural antioxidant from olive oil (2001) Drug Metabolism and Disposition, 11, pp. 1492-1498Goldstein, D.S., Swoboda, K.J., Miles, J.M., Coppack, S.W., Nemman, A., Holmes, C., Lamensdorf, I., Eisenhofer, G., Sources and physiological significance of plasma dopamine sulfate (1999) The Journal of Clinical Endocrinology & Metabolism, 84, pp. 2528-2531González-Santiago, M., Fonollá, J., Lopez-Huertas, E., Human absorption of a supplement containing purified hydroxytyrosol, a natural antioxidant from olive oil, and evidence for its transient association with low-density lipoproteins (2010) Pharmacological Research, 61, pp. 364-370Khymenets, O., Joglar, J., Clapes, P., Parella, T., Covas, M.I., de la Torre, R., Biocatalyzed synthesis and structural characterization of monoglucuronides of hydroxytyrosol, tyrosol, homovanillic alcohol and 3-(4'-hydroxyphenyl)propanol (2006) Advanced Synthesis & Catalysis, 348, pp. 2155-2162Manna, C., Galletti, P., Maisto, G., Cucciolla, V., D'Angelo, S., Zappia, V., Transport mechanism and metabolism of olive oil hydroxytyrosol in Caco-2 cells (2000) FEBS Letters, 470, pp. 341-344Mardh, G., Vallee, B.L., Human class I alcohol dehydrogenases catalyze the interconversion of alcohols and aldehydes in the metabolism of dopamine (1986) Biochemistry, 25, pp. 7279-7282Mateos, R., Goya, L., Bravo, L., Metabolism of the olive oil phenols hydroxytyrosol, tyrosol and hydroxytyrosyl acetate by human hepatoma HepG2 cells (2005) Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry, 53, pp. 9897-9905Miró-Casas, E., Covas, M., Fitó, M., Farrá-Albadalejo, M., Marrugat, J., Torre, R., Tyrosol and hydroxytyrosol are absorbed from moderate and sustained doses of virgin olive oil in humans (2003) European Journal of Clinical Nutrition, 57, pp. 186-190Perez-Jimenez, F., International conference on the healthy effect of virgin olive oil (2005) European Journal of Clinical Investigation, 35, pp. 421-424Scalbert, A., Williamson, G., Dietary intake and bioavailability of polyphenols (2000) Journal of Nutrition, 130, pp. 2073-2085Suárez, M., Valls, R.M., Romero, M., Macià, A., Fernández, S., Giralt, M., Solà, R., Motilva, M., Bioavailability of phenols from a phenol-enriched olive oil (2011) British Journal of Nutrition, pp. 1-11Townsend, C.M., (2006) Sabiston-Tratado de Cirurgia, 2. , 17a Edition, BrazilTrichopoulou, A., Vasilopoulou, E., Mediterranean diet and longevity (2000) The British Journal of Nutrition, 84, pp. 205-209Tuck, K.L., Hayball, P.J., Major phenolic compounds in olive oil: metabolism and health effects (2002) Journal of Nutritional Biochamistry, 13, pp. 636-644Tuck, K.L., Freeman, M.P., Hayball, P.J., Stretch, G.L., Stupans, I., The in vivo fate of hydroxytyrosol and tyrosol, antioxidant phenolic constituents of olive oil, after intravenous and oral dosing of labeled compounds to rats (2001) The Journal of Nutrition, 131, pp. 1993-1996Visioli, F., Galli, C., Olive oil: more than just oleic acid (2000) The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition, 72, p. 853Yaqoob, P., Knapper, J.A., Webb, D.H., Williams, C.M., Newsholme, E.A., Calder, P.C., Effect of olive oil on immune function in middle-aged men (1998) The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition, 67, pp. 129-13

Enantioselective Behavior Of Lipases From Aspergillus Niger Immobilized In Different Supports

Considering the extraordinary microbial diversity and importance of fungi as enzyme producers, the search for new biocatalysts with special characteristics and possible applications in biocatalysis is of great interest. Here, we report the performance in the resolution of racemic ibuprofen of a native enantioselective lipase from Aspergillus niger, free and immobilized in five types of support (Accurel EP-100, Amberlite MB-1, Celite, Montmorillonite K10 and Silica gel). Amberlite MB-1 was found to be the best support, with a conversion of 38.2%, enantiomeric excess of 50.7% and enantiomeric ratio (E value) of 19 in 72 h of reaction. After a thorough optimization of several parameters, the E value of the immobilized Aspergillus niger lipase was increased (E = 23) in a shorter reaction period (48 h) at 35°C. Moreover, the immobilized Aspergillus niger lipase maintained an esterification activity of at least 80% after 8 months of storage at 4°C and could be reused at least six times. © 2009 Society for Industrial Microbiology.367949954Adams, S.S., Bresloff, P., Mason, G.C., Pharmacological difference between the optical isomers of ibuprofen: Evidence for metabolic inversion of the (-)-isomer (1976) J Pharm Pharmacol, 28, pp. 156-157Bosley, J.A., Peilow, A.D., Immobilization of lipases on porous polypropylene: Reduction in esterification efficiency at low loading (1997) JAOCS, Journal of the American Oil Chemists' Society, 74 (2), pp. 107-111Carvalho, P.D.O., Calafatti, S.Ap., Marassi, M., Da Silva, D.M., Contesini, F.J., Bizaco, R., Macedo, G.A., Potential of enantioselective biocatalysis by microbial lipases (2005) Quimica Nova, 28 (4), pp. 614-621Carvalho, P.O., Contesini, F.J., Ikegaki, M., Enzymatic resolution of (R, S)- ibuprofen and (R, S)-ketoprofen by microbial lipases from native and commercial sources (2006) Braz J Microbiol, 37, pp. 329-337. , 10.1590/S1517-83822006000300024Chen, C.-S., Fujimoto, Y., Girdaukas, G., Sih, C.J., Quantitative analyses of biochemical kinetic resolutions of enantiomers (1982) J Am Chem Soc, 104, pp. 7294-7299. , 10.1021/ja00389a064Chen, J.-C., Tsai, S.-W., Enantioselective synthesis of (S)-ibuprofen ester prodrug in cyclohexane by Candida rugosa lipase immobilized on Accurel MP1000 (2000) Biotechnol Prog, 16, pp. 986-992. , 10.1021/bp0000961Da Silva, V.C.F., Contesini, F.J., Carvalho, P.O., Characterization and catalytic activity of free and immobilized lipase from Aspergillus niger: A comparative study (2008) J Braz Chem Soc, 8, pp. 1468-1474Faber, K., (2000) Biotransformation in Organic Chemistry, , 4 Springer BerlinGandhi, N.N., Sawant, S.B., Joshi, J.B., Studies on the lipozyme catalyzed synthesis of butyl laureate (1995) Biotechnol Bioeng, 46, pp. 1-12. , 10.1002/bit.260460102Ivanov, A.E., Schneider, M.P., Methods for immobilization of lipase and their use for ester synthesis (1997) J Mol Catal B Enzym, 3, pp. 303-309. , 10.1016/S1381-1177(97)00012-XLee, G., Kim, J., Lee, J.-H., Development of magnetically separable polyaniline nanofibers for the enzyme immobilization and recovery (2008) Enzyme Microb Technol, 4, pp. 466-472. , 10.1016/j.enzmictec.2007.12.006Long, W.S., Kamaruddin, A.H., Bhatia, S., A comparative study of palm oil hydrolysis by C. rugosa lipase in packed bed reactor: Covalent bound vs. adsorbed to Amberlite MB-1 (2003) J Inf Technol, 12, pp. 37-55Lowry, O.H., Rosenbrough, N.J., Farr, A.L., Randall, R.J., Protein measurement with the Folin Phenol Reagent (1951) J Biol Chem, 193, pp. 265-275Persson, M., Mladenoska, I., Wehtje, E., Adlercreutz, P., Preparation of lipases for use in organic solvents (2002) Enzyme Microb Technol, 31, pp. 833-841. , 10.1016/S0141-0229(02)00184-9Serri, N.A., Kamaruddin, A.H., Long, W.S., Studies of reaction parameters on synthesis of Citronellyl laurate ester via immobilized Candida rugosa lipase in organic media (2006) Bioprocess Biosyst Eng, 29, pp. 253-260. , 10.1007/s00449-006-0074-

Aspergillus Sp. Lipase: Potential Biocatalyst For Industrial Use

The lipases obtained from the genus Aspergillus present remarkable importance in biotechnological applications, and numerous studies have reported the importance of the fermentation parameters, such as nutrients, temperature and fermentation time. Moreover, many Aspergillus spp. lipases present several properties of immense industrial importance, such as their pH and temperature stability and excellent enantioselectivity. Different strategies have been used in order to immobilize crude or purified Aspergillus spp. lipases. Hence, Aspergillus spp. lipases have been studied for different industrial applications such as in the food and detergent industries, and also in the kinetic resolution of pharmaceuticals and chiral intermediates. This review highlights the production, purification, characterization, applications and immobilization of lipases from Aspergillus spp. © 2010 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.673-4163171Schmidt, R.D., Verger, R., (1998) Angew. Chem. Int. Ed. 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Food Supplementation With Vegetable Oils Rich In Oleic Acid: Health-promoting Effects And Application Viability

The role of food in human health is broad due to its diverse functions. Many foodsmay be explored in different aspects, since they are not only important for basic nutrition,but also show interesting functional properties. Unsaturated oils are commonly used infood supplementation, taking into account that they are sources of fatty acids, such asoleic acid. The regular consumption of these foods is associated with healthy effects onthe human body, including reduction of coronary heart disease risk and beneficial effectson blood lipids, including reduction of total and LDL-cholesterol, triglycerides andincrease of HDL-cholesterol in blood. The substitution of saturated for unsaturated fattyacids, as well as the supplementation with vegetable oils rich in oleic acid have been usedin food technology as a strategy of food production, with improvement in functional andsensory characteristics. Milk is an example of these substitutions, widely applied in thefood industry. Various research studies have shown that the consumption of milkenriched with oleic acid promoted a myriad of positive effects in healthy volunteers,subjects with increased risk factors and cardiovascular patients. The effects ofsupplementation with oleic acid in different types of salami and other products of animalorigin have also been reported. Wheat breads supplemented with oleic-rich sunflowerseed were produced without any significant adverse effects regarding the crust color,crumb grain structure and uniformity. Oleic acid has also been used in edible coatingssuch as plasticizer and emulsifier, for example, to preserve the quality of cold-stored strawberries, carrots and other fresh products. They improve sample appearance andconfer significant property barriers. These are important sensory and technologicalcharacteristics that justify the process viability, besides the addition of high nutritionalvalue. Therefore, food supplementation with vegetable oils rich in oleic acid can be veryinteresting, and different studies about this topic are going to be reviewed in thismanuscript. © 2013 Nova Science Publishers, Inc. All rights reserved.155164Chopra, J.G., (1974) AJPH, 64, p. 19Baro, L., Fonollá, J., Peña, J.L., Martínez-Férez, A., Lucena, A., Jiménez, J., Bozaand, J.J., López-Huertas, E., (2003) Clin. Nutr., 22, p. 175Carrero, J.J., Baró, L., Fonollá, J., González-Santiago, M., Martínez-Férez, A., Castillo, R., Jiménez, J., López-Huertas, E., (2004) Appl. Nutr. Invest., 20, p. 521Benito, P., Caballero, J., Moreno, Gutiérrez-Alcántara, J.C., Muñoz, C., Rojo, G., Garcia, S., Soriguer, F.C., (2006) Clin. Nutr, 25, p. 581Škrbić, B., Filipčev, B., (2008) Food Chem., 108, p. 119Nestel, P., Noakes, M., Belling, B., McArthur, R., Clifton, P., Janus, E., Abbey, M., (1992) J. Lipid Res., 33, p. 1029D'Imperio, M., Dugo, G.G., Alfa, M., Mannina, L.L., Segre, A.L., (2007) Food Chem., 102, p. 956Liu, Q., Singh, S., Green, A., (2002) J. Am. Coll. Nutr., 2, pp. 205SWarner, K., Knowlton, S., (1997) JAMA, J. Am. Med. Assoc., 74, p. 1317Gerde, J., Hardy, C., Fehr, W., White, P.J., (2007) JAMA J. Am. Oil. Chem. Soc., 84, p. 557Mensink, R.P., Katan, M.B., (1990) New Engl. J. Med., 323, p. 439Mozaffarian, D., Katan, M.B., Ascherio, A., Stampfer, M.J., Willett, W.C., (2006) N. Engl. J. Med., 354, p. 1601Warner, K., Gupta, M., (2005) J. Food Sci., 70, p. 395Okeefe, S.F., Wiley, V.A., Knauft, D.A., (1993) J. Am. Oil. Chem. Soc., 70, p. 489Bolton, G.E., Sanders, T.H., (2002) J. Am. Oil Chem. Soc., 79, p. 129Mendes, M.J., Santos, O.A.A., Jorda E.̃o, Silva, A.M., (2001) Appl. Catal. A-General, 217, p. 253Farra, W.E., Listb, G.R., Hydrogenation Tecniques (2004) Nutritionally Enhanced Edible Oil Processing, p. 320. , N. T. Dunford and H. B. Dunford, Routledge, USA, ppCepeda, E.A., Calvo, B., (2008) J. Food Eng., 89, p. 370Veldsink, J.W., Muuse, B.G., Meijer, M.M.T., Cuperus, F.P., van de Sande, R.L.K.M., van Putte, K.P.A.M., (1999) Fett/Lipid, 7, p. 244Brat, J., Pokorny J.́, (2000) J. Food Compos. Anal, 13, p. 337. , (2000)Walter, A., Rule, T., (1987), European Patent No. 0,129,990, Sept. 9Gil, A., (1992), European Patent No. 0,484,266, May 6Kuchan, M.A., Masor, M.L., Ponder, D.L., Halter, R.J., Benson, J.D., Katz, G.E., (2000), United States Patent No. 6,136,858, Oct. 24Quinlan, P.T., Chandler, I.C., (1992), European Patent No. 0,496,456, Jul. 29Lopez-Huertas, E., (2010) Pharmacol. Res, 61, p. 200Romeo, J., Warnberg, J., García-Mármol, E., Rodríguez-Rodríguez, M., Diaz, L.E., Gomez-Martínez, S., Cueto, B., Marcos, A., (2011) Nutr. Metab. & Cardiovasc. Dis., 21, p. 113Bourtoom, T., (2008) Int. Food Res. J., 15, p. 237Rhim, J.W., Wu, Y., Weller, C.L., Schnepf, M., (1999) J. Food Sci., 64, p. 149Fabra, M.J., Talens, P., Chiralt, A., (2008) J. Food Eng., 85, p. 393Morillon, V., Debeaufort, F., Blond, G., Capelle, M., Voilley, A., (2002) Crit. Rev. Food Sci. Nutr., 42, p. 6

Potential Applications Of Carbohydrases Immobilization In The Food Industry

Carbohydrases find a wide application in industrial processes and products, mainly in the food industry. With these enzymes, it is possible to obtain different types of sugar syrups (viz. glucose, fructose and inverted sugar syrups), prebiotics (viz. galactooligossacharides and fructooligossacharides) and isomaltulose, which is an interesting sweetener substitute for sucrose to improve the sensory properties of juices and wines and to reduce lactose in milk. The most important carbohydrases to accomplish these goals are of microbial origin and include amylases (α-amylases and glucoamylases), invertases, inulinases, galactosidases, glucosidases, fructosyltransferases, pectinases and glucosyltransferases. Yet, for all these processes to be cost-effective for industrial application, a very efficient, simple and cheap immobilization technique is required. Immobilization techniques can involve adsorption, entrapment or covalent bonding of the enzyme into an insoluble support, or carrier-free methods, usually based on the formation of cross-linked enzyme aggregates (CLEAs). They include a broad variety of supports, such as magnetic materials, gums, gels, synthetic polymers and ionic resins. All these techniques present advantages and disadvantages and several parameters must be considered. In this work, the most recent and important studies on the immobilization of carbohydrases with potential application in the food industry are reviewed. © 2013 by the authors; licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland.14113351369Simpson, B.K., Rui, X., Klomklao, S., Enzymes in Food Processing (2012) Food Biochemistry and Food Processing, pp. 181-206. , In 2nd ed.Simpson, B.K., Ed.Wiley-Blackwell: Oxford, UKJana, M., Maity, C., Samanta, S., Pati, B.R., Islam, S.S., Mohapatra, P.K.D., Mondal, K.C., Salt-independent thermophilic α-amylase from Bacillus megaterium VUMB109: An efficacy testing for preparation of maltooligosaccharides (2013) Ind. Crop. 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Microbial Transformations Of Oleic Acid

Oleic acid is one of the most important vegetable oils fatty acids within differentindustrial fields. This monounsaturated fatty acid is extensively found in olive, corn, andsoybean oils, among others. Its importance varies from health-promoting properties, suchas the prevention of cardiovascular diseases and some types of cancer, to manytechnological applications, taking into account the oxidative stability of this oil. Oneimportant application of oleic acid is its use for obtaining different compounds throughmicrobial transformations and biocatalytic processes. These steps include hydration orepoxidation of the double bond, reduction of carboxylic acid and combinations of thesereactions. An important group that can be obtained through transformation of oleic acid isthe hydroxy fatty acids (HFA) and their derivatives. They are used in cosmetics, paintsand coatings, lubricants and in the food industry. Several microorganisms, which includebacterial and yeast strains, produce HFA from oleic acid, such as in the obtainment of (E)10-hydroxy-8-octadecenoic acid, using a Pseudomonas sp. 42A2 strain. 10-hydroxyoctadecanoic acid can be produced by Nocardia cholesterolicum, Rhodococcussp. and Saccharomyces cerevisiae. These compounds are examples of monohydroxyderivatives of oleic acid and have a diverse potential for application in the food industry,considering its similarity with ricinoleic acid. Added to the possibility ofbiotransformation of oleic acid using microbial cells, the use of isolated lipases for theproduction of other compounds from oleic acid and/or triacylglycerols containing oleicacid have been reported, as well as the production of structured lipids by acydolysis ofdifferent oil sources with free fatty acid mixtures. These reactions are catalyzed bymicrobial lipases from different microorganisms like Rhizomucor miehei, andThermomyces lanuginosus. Therefore, this review reports the use of free oleic acid and/or different oils containing oleic acid in their compositions for the obtaining of differentimportant compounds, with the use of microbial cells by biotransformation of oleic acid,or by biocatalytic reactions using isolated microbial lipases. © 2013 Nova Science Publishers, Inc. All rights reserved.7182Berdy, J., (2005) J. Antibiot., 58 (1)Bajpai, V.K., Kim, H.R., Hou, C.T., Kanget, S.C., (2009) J. Ind. Microbiol. Biotechnol, 36, p. 695Carballeira, N.M., (2008) Prog. Lipid Res, 47, p. 50Hou, C.T., Bagby, M.O., (1991) J. Ind. Microbiol, 7, p. 123Kim, H.R., (2001) Enzyme Microb. Technol, 25, p. 583Bagby, M.O., Calson, K.D., (1989) Fats for the future, , Ellis Horwood Limited Press, Chichester, UKBajpai, V., Shin, S.Y., Kim, M.J., Kim, H.R., Kang, S.C., (2004) Agric. Chem. Biotechnol, 47, p. 199Hou, C.T., Forman, R.J., (2000) J. Ind. Microbiol. Biotechnol, 24, p. 275Shin, S.Y., Kim, H.R., Kang, S.C., (2004) Agric. Chem. 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Potential Of Enantioselective Biocatalysis By Microbial Lipases [potencial De Biocatálise Enantiosseletiva De Lipases Microbianas]

Microbial lipases have a great potential for commercial applications due to their stability, selectivity and broad substrate specificity because many non-natural acids, alcohols or amines can be used as the substrate. Three microbial lipases isolated from Brazilian soil samples (Aspergillus niger; Geotrichum candidum; Penicillium solitum) were compared in terms of their stability and as biocatalysts in the enantioselective esterification using racemic substrates in organic medium. The lipase from Aspergillus niger showed the highest activity (18.2 U/mL) and was highly thermostable, retaining 90% and 60% activity at 50°C and 60°C after 1 hour, respectively. In organic medium, this lipase provided the best results in terms of enantiomeric excess of the (S)-active acid (ee = 6.1%) and conversion value (c = 20%) in the esterification of (R,S)-ibuprofen with 1-propanol in isooctane. 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Response Surface Analysis For The Production Of An Enantioselective Lipase From Aspergillus Niger By Solid-state Fermentation

The lipase produced by the Aspergillus niger strain AC-54 has been widely studied due to its enantioselectivity for racemic mixtures. This study aimed to optimize the production of this enzyme using statistical methodology. Initially a Plackett-Burman (PB) design was used to evaluate the effects of the culture medium components and the culture conditions. Twelve factors were screened: Water content, glucose, yeast extract, peptone, olive oil, temperature, NaH 2P0 4, KH 2P0 4, MgS0 4-7H 20, CaCl 2, NaCI, and MnS0 4. The screening showed that the significant factors were water content, glucose, yeast extract, peptone, NaH 2P0 4, and KH 2P0 4, which were optimized using response surface methodology (RSM) and a mathematical model obtained to explain the behavioral process. The best lipase activity was attained using the following conditions: Water content (20%), glucose (4.8%), yeast extract (4.0%), and NaH2P04 (4.0%). 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