2 research outputs found
Progressive Increase in Disinfection Byproducts and Mutagenicity from Source to Tap to Swimming Pool and Spa Water: Impact of Human Inputs
Pools and spas are enjoyed throughout the world for exercise and
relaxation. However, there are no previous studies on mutagenicity
of disinfected spa (hot tub) waters or comprehensive identification
of disinfection byproducts (DBPs) formed in spas. Using 28 water samples
from seven sites, we report the first integrated mutagenicity and
comprehensive analytical chemistry of spas treated with chlorine,
bromine, or ozone, along with pools treated with these same disinfectants.
Gas chromatography (GC) with high-resolution mass spectrometry, membrane-introduction
mass spectrometry, and GC-electron capture detection were used to
comprehensively identify and quantify DBPs and other contaminants.
Mutagenicity was assessed by the <i>Salmonella</i> mutagenicity
assay. More than 100 DBPs were identified, including a new class of
DBPs, bromoimidazoles. Organic extracts of brominated pool/spa waters
were 1.8× more mutagenic than chlorinated ones; spa waters were
1.7× more mutagenic than pools. Pool and spa samples were 2.4
and 4.1× more mutagenic, respectively, than corresponding tap
waters. The concentration of the sum of 21 DBPs measured quantitatively
increased from finished to tap to pool to spa; and mutagenic potency
increased from finished/tap to pools to spas. Mutagenic potencies
of samples from a chlorinated site correlated best with brominated
haloacetic acid concentrations (Br-HAAs) (<i>r</i> = 0.98)
and nitrogen-containing DBPs (N-DBPs) (<i>r</i> = 0.97)
and the least with Br-trihalomethanes (<i>r</i> = 0.29)
and Br–N-DBPs (<i>r</i> = 0.04). The mutagenic potencies
of samples from a brominated site correlated best (<i>r</i> = 0.82) with the concentrations of the nine HAAs, Br-HAAs, and Br-DBPs.
Human use increased significantly the DBP concentrations and mutagenic
potencies for most pools and spas. These data provide evidence that
human precursors can increase mutagenic potencies of pools and spas
and that this increase is associated with increased DBP concentrations
Occurrence and Toxicity of Disinfection Byproducts in European Drinking Waters in Relation with the HIWATE Epidemiology Study
The HIWATE (<b>H</b>ealth <b>I</b>mpacts
of long-term
exposure to disinfection byproducts in drinking <b>WATE</b>r)
project was a systematic analysis that combined the epidemiology on
adverse pregnancy outcomes and other health effects with long-term
exposure to low levels of drinking water disinfection byproducts (DBPs)
in the European Union. The present study focused on the relationship
of the occurrence and concentration of DBPs with in vitro mammalian
cell toxicity. Eleven drinking water samples were collected from five
European countries. Each sampling location corresponded with an epidemiological
study for the HIWATE program. Over 90 DBPs were identified; the range
in the number of DBPs and their levels reflected the diverse collection
sites, different disinfection processes, and the different characteristics
of the source waters. For each sampling site, chronic mammalian cell
cytotoxicity correlated highly with the numbers of DBPs identified
and the levels of DBP chemical classes. Although there was a clear
difference in the genotoxic responses among the drinking waters, these
data did not correlate as well with the chemical analyses. Thus, the
agents responsible for the genomic DNA damage observed in the HIWATE
samples may be due to unresolved associations of combinations of identified
DBPs, unknown emerging DBPs that were not identified, or other toxic
water contaminants. This study represents the first to integrate quantitative
in vitro toxicological data with analytical chemistry and human epidemiologic
outcomes for drinking water DBPs