Gendered Sexuality : Exploring dynamics of the sexual double standard

The sexual double standard (SDS) is a divergent set of expectations for boys and men, and girls and women for engaging in romantic and sexual behaviour. It prescribes that boys and men should be sexually active, assertive and take sexual initiative, whereas girls and women should be sexually reactive, functioning as gatekeepers and be sexually passive. These prevailing gender norms encourage unequal judgment of men and women for exhibiting similar sexual behaviour, leading to serious consequences for male and female sexual health. These consequences seem to be most detrimental to girls and women. However, many of the underlying dynamics of the SDS remain unclear. Therefore, this dissertation describes six studies that further knowledge on SDS measurement, its psychosexual correlates and its gendered display in the form of sexual assertiveness. These studies were conducted among heterosexual Dutch adolescents and emerging adults. Firstly, this dissertation describes the development of new and good quality measures for the SDS. These measures have subsequently been used in the studies described. These studies show that the sexual double standard is still visible in the sexuality of Dutch young people. Although SDS endorsement is not particularly strong among this population in general, the results point towards a number of vulnerable groups. Secondly, this dissertation shows that SDS endorsement is connected to decreased sexual autonomy among Dutch women only, which is in turn related to decreased positive and increased negative emotions. Furthermore, two studies using different types of measures to study the SDS and sexual assertiveness, showed that these concepts seem to exist at different cognitive levels. This is particularly apparent among Dutch women, as their respective scores on the different types of SDS and sexual assertiveness measures revealed an experienced ambiguity concerning their sexuality, that is not seen among men. The last study in the dissertation shows that people adapt their sexually assertive behaviour, i.e. they socially tune their sexual behaviour to gendered characteristics of sexual situations and sexual partners. Future studies should focus on influence processes that underlie sexual attitudes in line with the SDS. Moreover, increased attention needs to be paid to the personal lived experiences of sexuality and sexual autonomy, in particular among girls and women. Transcending the level of the individual studies of this dissertation, is a recommendation to make Dutch sexuality education gender-transformative, to establish cultural change towards increased gender equality

Predictors of quality of life of people receiving intensive community-based care

Purpose Intensive community-based care (ICBC) is a home-treatment approach aiming to support people ‘living in the community’ with severe psychiatric and addiction problems. Although subjective quality of life (SQOL) is an increasingly important outcome measure in health care, little is known on ICBC clients’ SQOL. Methods Clients of three ICBC teams (N = 523) participated in the study. Upon intake, clients filled out a SQOL measure and indicated whether they had a good friend, partner, and children, as well as their experiences with crime. Professional caregivers filled in a measure on problem severity. Results Regression was used to examine to what extent the included variables contributed to explaining variance in ICBC clients’ SQOL. Determinants in the model significantly predicted client SQOL and explained 37 % of the variance. ‘Symptomatology’ (depressive symptoms) and ‘social problems’ (living conditions) negatively influenced the SQOL, while having a partner, a good friend, and an overall lower problem severity positively influenced SQOL. Conclusions SQOL among ICBC clients is related to psychopathology, in contrast to previous knowledge. It is dependent upon symptom specificity, living conditions, and social circumstances and therefore presumably on program characteristics. This study provides insight into well-being among ICBC clients and is therefore relevant to involved healthcare professionals

The relationship between endorsement of the sexual double standard and sexual cognitions and emotions

Sexual gender norms promoting sexual prowess for men, but sexual modesty for women have been shown to negatively affect sexual and mental health in both men and women. Knowledge about the relationship between gender norms and sexual cognitions and emotions might further the understanding of continued gender-norm conformity. In the present study, we investigated whether and how gendered sexual attitudes are related to (positive and negative) sex-related emotions, via sexual cognitions (autonomy, body esteem, and approach/avoidance motives for sex). A survey was submitted to 293 heterosexually identified, sexually active, Dutch (central and southern regions) 18–25 year-olds. Results from a moderated mediation model (using structural equation modeling) revealed that women, but not men, who more strongly endorsed traditional gender-related sexual attitudes experienced significantly less positive and more negative emotions, as a result of decreased sexual autonomy and sexual body esteem as well as increased avoidance motives for sex. We conclude that, as a result of negative cognitions associated with the endorsement of traditional gender norms, women in particular are at risk of experiencing negative emotional outcomes in the sexual context. We argue that sexual cognitions and emotions deserve explicit attention in sex-positive and gender-transformative sexuality education, which has been proven to be a vital resource for achieving increased gender-equity in sexual and romantic relationships

The relationship between endorsement of the sexual double standard and sexual cognitions and emotions

Sexual gender norms promoting sexual prowess for men, but sexual modesty for women have been shown to negatively affect sexual and mental health in both men and women. Knowledge about the relationship between gender norms and sexual cognitions and emotions might further the understanding of continued gender-norm conformity. In the present study, we investigated whether and how gendered sexual attitudes are related to (positive and negative) sex-related emotions, via sexual cognitions (autonomy, body esteem, and approach/avoidance motives for sex). A survey was submitted to 293 heterosexually identified, sexually active, Dutch (central and southern regions) 18–25 year-olds. Results from a moderated mediation model (using structural equation modeling) revealed that women, but not men, who more strongly endorsed traditional gender-related sexual attitudes experienced significantly less positive and more negative emotions, as a result of decreased sexual autonomy and sexual body esteem as well as increased avoidance motives for sex. We conclude that, as a result of negative cognitions associated with the endorsement of traditional gender norms, women in particular are at risk of experiencing negative emotional outcomes in the sexual context. We argue that sexual cognitions and emotions deserve explicit attention in sex-positive and gender-transformative sexuality education, which has been proven to be a vital resource for achieving increased gender-equity in sexual and romantic relationships