Voyage to Italia: Americans in Italy in the Nineteenth Century

ItalY had long been a destination for American travelers, but by the nineteenth century American tourists flooded into Rome and Florence, hunted for picturesque vistas on the Bay of Naples and roamed through ancient ruins in Paestum. Armed with Baedeker guidebooks or the Hand-Book for American Travellers in Europe, Collated from the Best Authorities, they sought the authentic spirit of Dante, Petrarch, and Virgil, and chronicled their lengthy tours in detailed journals and letters to friends. Americans traveled to Italy for various reasons: to gain social prestige, to pursue artistic and literary interests, or simply to enjoy a beautiful country. Americans in nineteenth-century Italy sought to capture and make sense of their cross-cultural experiences. Through works of art, travel diaries, and guidebooks, Voyage to Italia: Americans in Italy in the Nineteenth Century documents the idealizing and critical attitudes that American tourists had about Italy. During the late seventeenth and early eighteenth centuries, the Grand Tour was a rite of passage for wealthy, young European men, and for a few American men as well. Led by a tutor, the young men traversed the Continent for a few months to as long as five years. The Grand Tour might supplement a college education, or in some cases, replace it entirely. It was intended to give a young gentleman the polish and education he needed to fulfill adequately his role in society. During the course of their travels, these students would become immersed in the Classical world of the Greeks and Romans, the artistic world of the Renaissance, and the atmosphere of royal courts and halls of diplomacy. The final leg of the trip was Rome, where visits to the Coliseum and to St. Peter\u27s tomb were the highlights. By the nineteenth century, the Grand Tour as a cultural touchstone had dwindled in importance, but the concept of travel as an educational and cultural experience was still significant. Advances in technology, such as an extensive railway network throughout Europe, made the journey easier, and Americans had become a much greater percentage of the tourists

In the twinkling of an eye : A proporsal for the standard of legality to be applied in hospital staff privileges cases

This paper addresses one of the most troublesome aspects of antitrust jurisprudence. What standard of legality governs cases dealing with medical staff privileges decisions? Heretofore, it was generally thought that only two options existed. The most frequently used standard of legality for this type of case is the rule of reason. In using this analysis, the court looks at the restraint of trade of the reasonableness of its nature, and its purpose and effect. The pro-competitive aspects of the conduct are weighed against the restraints that the conduct imposes on the competition. In health care cases, courts have looked at the purpose of the restriction to determine if it is reasonably related to legitimate objectives or whether it is motivated by an anticompetitive intent to damage or eliminate a competitor form the market. The other option, only rarely applied in the context of staff privileges, is the per se standard. The per se rule deems the restraint to be automatic violations of the antitrust laws without any further inquiry into the precise harm or defendant’s justifications. Historically, the determination of the standard of legality to be used in hospital staff privileges cases heralded the resolution of the case, with the defendant almost always being successful in a rule of reason case and plaintiffs winning the infrequent cases where per se analysis is applied. There appears, however, to be emerging a third option in the field of antitrust law generally. This paper will examine the truncated rule of reason, quick look or twinkling of an eye analysis and its potential application in the hospital staff privileges context