Antimicrobial and phytochemical investigation of herbal suspensions used in management of oral health in Nairobi County, Kenya

An increasing number of Kenyans are using natural herbal products for general and oral health care due to high cost of conventional medicine. Few of these products, however, have undergone rigorous testing, as evidenced by the limited amount of information on their safety and efficacy in the literature. This study investigated the antimicrobial and phytochemical properties of 10 suspensions based on herbal products sold in Nairobi Kenya. Phytochemical evaluation was carried out using standard methods while agar well diffusion was used to study antimicrobial work.  Results reveal lack of detectable levels of phytochemicals while 50% of the investigated products lacked antimicrobial activity against test bacteria (Staphyloccus aureus ATCC 25923, Pseudomonas aeruginosa (P.a) ATCC 27853, Proteus vulgaris ATCC 6380, Bacillus subtilis ATCC 14579, Candida albicans ATCC 10231, Esherichia coli ATCC 25922, Streptococcus mutans, Enterococcus faecalis, ATCC 9790 and Lactobacillus acidophilus). The study concludes that some products in the market may not be based on herbs as indicated in the label. Thorough investigation of antimicrobial, phytochemical work as well as toxicity should be carried out on such products. The results provide practitioners and consumers with insight into the claims of natural herbal products antimicrobial effects. Key words: antimicrobial activity, herbal products, activity index, phytochemica

Antimicrobial resistance and plasmid profiles of Aeromonas hydrophila isolated from River Njoro, Kenya

The purpose of this study was to investigate the presence of Aeromonas hydrophila at commonly used water collection points on the River Njoro and to determine the in-vitro antimicrobial susceptibility and plasmid profiles of isolates. In total, 126 samples were collected and 36.5% of them were positive for A. hydrophila. The A. hydrophila were recovered on membrane filters, cultured on Trypticase Soy agar, Bile aesculin agar and Aeromonas Medium agar. They were further characterized using cytochrome oxidase and API 20E tests. Detection of drug susceptibility was determined using modified disc diffusion method to ampicillin (25 ìg), cefaclor (30 ìg), ceftizoxime (30 ìg), cefixime (5 ìg), cefazidime (30 ìg), gentamicin (200 ìg), streptomycin (25 ìg), chloramphenicol (50 ìg), nalidixic acid (30 ìg) and ciprofloxacin (1 ìg). Most of the isolates showed multi-drug resistance to two or more antibiotics. Chloramphenicol, nalidixic acid, ciprofloxacin, cefazidime and cefixime were the most sensitive drugs with 100% efficacy whereas ampicillin, cefaclor and streptomycin were the most resistant drugs having 100, 67 and 50 resistance, respectively. There was low resistance against ceftizoxime (16.7%) and gentamicin (23.3%). These results indicates that all A. hydrophila isolated from River Njoro had complete resistance to ampicillin and showed variable resistance to cefaclor, streptomycin, gentamycin and ceftizoxime. R-plasmids were extracted from multi-drug resistance strains and separated by agarose gel (0.8%) electrophoresis for profiling. Plasmid profiling revealed that most of the multi-drug resistant isolates contained one plasmid of 21.0 kb. Although some strains exhibited different antimicrobial resistance patterns, all of their plasmids were of the same size (21.0 kb). However, there were no plasmids in the antimicrobial sensitive isolates. This study also indicates that plasmid 21.0 kb is common in A. hydrophila and is important for antimicrobial resistance and virulence. Further studies are required to ascertain the role of this plasmid as a virulence marker.Key words: Aeromonas hydrophila, antimicrobial resistance, plasmid profile

Antimicrobial resistance and plasmid profiles of Aeromonas hydrophila isolated from River Njoro, Kenya

The purpose of this study was to investigate the presence of Aeromonas hydrophila at commonly used water collection points on the River Njoro and to determine the in-vitro antimicrobial susceptibility and plasmid profiles of isolates. In total, 126 samples were collected and 36.5% of them were positive for A. hydrophila. The A. hydrophila were recovered on membrane filters, cultured on Trypticase Soy agar, Bile aesculin agar and Aeromonas Medium agar. They were further characterized using cytochrome oxidase and API 20E tests. Detection of drug susceptibility was determined using modified disc diffusion method to ampicillin (25 μg), cefaclor (30 μg), ceftizoxime (30 μg), cefixime (5 μg), cefazidime (30 μg), gentamicin (200 μg), streptomycin (25 μg), chloramphenicol (50 μg), nalidixic acid (30 μg) and ciprofloxacin (1 μg). Most of the isolates showed multi-drug resistance to two or more antibiotics. Chloramphenicol, nalidixic acid, ciprofloxacin, cefazidime and cefixime were the most sensitive drugs with 100% efficacy whereas ampicillin, cefaclor and streptomycin were the most resistant drugs having 100, 67 and 50 resistance, respectively. There was low resistance against ceftizoxime (16.7%) and gentamicin (23.3%). These results indicates that all A. hydrophila isolated from River Njoro had complete resistance to ampicillin and showed variable resistance to cefaclor, streptomycin, gentamycin and ceftizoxime. R-plasmids were extracted from multi-drug resistance strains and separated by agarose gel (0.8%) electrophoresis for profiling. Plasmid profiling revealed that most of the multi-drug resistant isolates contained one plasmid of 21.0 kb. Although some strains exhibited different antimicrobial resistance patterns, all of their plasmids were of the same size (21.0 kb). However, there were no plasmids in the antimicrobial sensitive isolates. This study also indicates that plasmid 21.0 kb is common in A. hydrophila and is important for antimicrobial resistance and virulence. Further studies are required to ascertain the role of this plasmid as a virulence marker

Nutrient enrichment of pineapple waste using Aspergillus niger and Trichoderma viride by solid state fermentation

The enrichment by microbial fermentation of agro industrial waste to alleviate their nutritional problems has been proposed but the nutritional value of the subsequent feed for animal consumption has not been fully elucidated. This study investigates whether solid state fermentation of pineapple waste using the fungi Aspergillus niger and Trichoderma viride could improve its nutrient content. Results show that fermentation of pineapple waste by solid state fermentation using the fungi A. niger and T. viride significantly (P < 0.05) enriches the nutrient content of the waste, particularly increasing the crude protein and ash content while lowering the crude fiber content. The most significant nutrient enrichment was recorded at 72 h of fermentation using A. niger and at 96 h of fermentation using T. viride. Indiscernible changes were noted in the mineral content of pineapple waste (PW). Dry matter increased significantly (P < 0.05) as fermentation progressed with the highest values recorded at 96 h. This study establishes no significant differences (P > 0.05) in the fermentation abilities of the two fungi, A. niger and T. viride. Fermented pineapple waste may be a potential supplement in compounding animal feed provided that it is acceptable and highly digestible.Keywords: Agro industrial waste, crude fiber, crude protein

Cardiovascular Disease Risk Factors in HIVInfected Adults in Nyeri County, Kenya

Cardiovascular diseases (CVD) is currently second, after cancer, as the most frequent cause of death among HIV-positive subjects in areas of the world where Highly active anti-retroviral therapy (HAART) is widely available. The purpose of this study was to investigate cardiovascular disease markers in HIV-infected adults attending comprehensive care clinic in Nyeri Level- 5- Hospital. The results are based on a sample of 85 participants that randomly selected for an intervention study with two study arms. Descriptive statistics were used to analyze all study variables. Relationships between all and individual CVD risk factors were analyzed using Spearman’s correlation coefficient. Criterion for statistical significance was at p < 0.05 and 90% power of test. Twenty nine percent of the respondents were aged fifty years and above while 48.2% were between 40-49 years. Only 5.9% of the respondents smoked while 8.2% drunk alcohol. Twenty seven percent (27.1%) had low physical activity while 24.7% had obesity class I (30-34.9), 8.2% had obesity class II (35-39.9) while 1.5% had obesity class III (> 40). Another 31.8% were overweight (25-29.9). 28.2% had hypertension stage I (140-159) and another 11.8% had hypertension stage II (>160). Twenty two percent (22.4%) had high total cholesterol (>6.2), while 34.1% had high serum triglycerides (2.25-5.6) and another 4.7% had very high serum LDL-C (>4.91). Framingham’s risk score was used to determine the 10-year risk of developing a coronary heart disease. Majority of the participants (60%) had low (<10%) 10-year risk of coronary heart disease at the baseline. There is a high prevalence of hypertension and overweight/obesity among HIV+ patients

Effect of Peanut Consumption on Nutritional Status Indices of HIV Infected Adults in Nyeri County, Kenya

Introduction and objectives; Peanuts are a rich source of magnesium, folate, fibre, α-tocopherol, copper, arginine and resveratrol. These compounds have been shown to reduce the CVD risk in various ways. The purpose of this study was to investigate the effect of peanut supplementation on nutrition status of HIV-infected adults attending comprehensive care clinic in Nyeri Level- 5- Hospital. Methodology; The study design was a randomized cross-over trial. The eligible participants were randomly assigned to a two arm study. In treatment I, the participants consumed their regular diet supplemented with 80gms of peanuts; while in treatment II, the participants were counseled on healthy diet and supplemented it with 80gms of peanut. The participants then crossed over to respective treatments. Each treatment took 8 weeks, with a six weeks washout period between treatments. A paired T- test was used to compare subject differences in markers at baseline and at the end of each treatment. Multiple regression analysis was used to determine the effect of peanut supplementation on nutrition status. Results; Peanut supplementation significantly increased intake of total fat while carbohydrate intake decreased significantly (p < 0.05). There was no significant change in weight, BMI, waist circumference, hip circumference, body fat, body muscle, systolic and diastolic blood pressure and fasting blood glucose. There was a significant decrease (p < 0.05) in total cholesterol, triglycerides and Low density lipoprotein in both treatments while High density lipoprotein increased significantly (p < 0.05). Conclusion; Regular supplementation of a healthy diet with 80gms of peanut may improve the lipid profile without affecting the body weight status

Proximate analysis of raw and roasted groundnut (Arachis hypogaea L.): Red Valencia and manikanta varieties

Proximate analysis of raw and roasted groundnuts of red Valencia and manipinta varieties were determined. The moisture content of raw and roasted peanut ranged from 4.84-5.11% and 2.02 - 2.17% respectively while fat content of raw and roasted peanut ranged from 43.3-48.3% and 47.3-49.1% respectively. Protein content in raw peanut ranged from 22.02-28.99% while roasted peanut ranged from 31.4-33.1%. Total ash in raw peanut ranged from 2.37-2.54% while roasted peanut ranged from 4.04-4.13%. Fiber content in raw peanut ranged from 9.8-10.83% while in roasted it ranged from 5.47-6.56%. Carbohydrate content in raw peanut ranged from9.49-12.37% while roasted ranged from 6.63-7.87%. Fat content, moisture and fibre content were significantly higher in Red Valencia than Manipinta. Roasting significantly affects moisture, fat and fibre content

Malaria morbidity among school children living in two areas of contrasting transmission in western Kenya.

Research in malaria-endemic areas is usually focused on malaria during early childhood. Less is known about malaria among older school age children. The incidence of clinical attacks of malaria was monitored, using active case detection in primary schools, in two areas of western Kenya that differ in the intensity of transmission. Clinical malaria was more common in schools in the Nandi highlands, with a six-fold higher incidence of malaria attacks during the malaria epidemic in 2002, compared with school children living in a holoendemic area with intense perennial transmission during the same period. The high incidence coupled with the high parasite densities among cases is compatible with a low level of protective immunity in the highlands. The malaria incidence among school children exposed to intense year-round transmission (26 per 100 school children per year) was consistent with reports from other holoendemic areas. Taken together with other published studies, the data suggest that malaria morbidity among school age children increases as transmission intensity decreases. The implications for malaria control are discussed

Effects of a Healthy Diet plus Peanut Consumption on the Fasting Lipid Profile of HIV-infected Adults in Nyeri County, Kenya: A Randomized Crossover Study

Introduction: Dyslipidemia is a key modifiable cardiovascular risk factor and a major clinical feature in the patients infected with the human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) in the current era of highly active antiretroviral therapy. Peanuts could reduce the risk of cardiovascular diseases as an abundant source of fiber, α-tocopherol, copper, arginine, magnesium, folate, and resveratrol. The present study aimed to evaluate the impact of supplementing peanut and counseling in the form of a healthy diet on the fasting lipid profile of HIV-infected adults. Methods: This randomized crossover clinical trial was conducted on the eligible participants who were randomly assigned to a two-arm study. In treatment I, the participants consumed 80 grams of peanuts plus their regular diet. In treatment II, the participants were provided with nutrition counseling on a healthy diet and consumed 80 grams of peanuts. Each treatment continued for eight weeks with a six-week washout interval. Results: A 3.07% reduction was observed in the total cholesterol of the subjects receiving treatment I, while the reduction rate was 5.39% in treatment II. In addition, a 12.8% decrease was observed in the triglycerides of the subjects receiving treatment 1I, as well as a 17% reduction in treatment II. A significant increase was reported in the high-density lipoprotein cholesterol in treatments I and II, with the rate estimated at 7.38% and 5.1%, respectively. Furthermore, low-density lipoprotein cholesterol decreased by 5.56% in treatment I and 4.32% in treatment II. The estimated 10-year risk of contracting coronary heart disease reduced significantly between the baseline and end of the study (P=0.03). Conclusion: According to the results, regular consumption of peanuts could improve the fasting lipid profile of HIV-infected patients and reduce the risk of coronary heart disease