A close-up view of an area in West Kalimantan province, Borneo (see top-right inset for location).

<p>In this example, an intact forest in year 1973 was logged in 1990 and became converted to an industrial oil Palm Plantation in 2010. On the 1973 LANDSAT MSS imagery (false color composite: 3-4-2) forest appears dark green (panel A). The resulting forest non-forest supervised classification is shown in panel D. On the 1990 LANDSAT TM imagery (false color composite: 5-4-3) primary logging roads are seen carving through the forest (panel B). The logging roads (yellow lines) and public roads (black lines) are shown in panel E. An aerial view of a primary logging road (Photo by R. Butler <a href="http://www.plosone.org/article/info:doi/10.1371/journal.pone.0101654#pone.0101654-Butler1" target="_blank">[53]</a>) is shown the inset of panel B. On the 2010 LANDSAT TM imagery), the forest has become converted to an industrial oil palm plantation (grid-like patterns). The boundary of the plantations was digitized by visual interpretation (Panel F).</p

Length and density of primary logging roads by country.

<p>Length and density of primary logging roads by country.</p

Intact, logged and cleared forest area by country and elevation, 1973 and 2010.

<p>Intact, logged and cleared forest area by country and elevation, 1973 and 2010.</p

Summary of Spatial Data.

<p>Summary of Spatial Data.</p

Expansion of the primary logging road network in Borneo from 1973 until 2010.

<p>Expansion of the primary logging road network in Borneo from 1973 until 2010.</p

The heart of Borneo and the spatial progression of logging since 1973 depicting a logging ‘frontier’ moving steadily upward and inland, from the lowland coasts to the highlands.

<p>In many areas, logging roads are surrounding and abutting against the edges of highland protected forests – the last contiguous bastions of intact forest.</p

Accuracy results of 1973 ‘Forest’, and ‘Non-forest’ classification.

<p>Overall accuracy = 89.0%.</p

Comparison of mean differences in deforestation (2000–2010) before and after matching.

<p>These values are expressed in hectares lost in 100 ha plots that were nearly fully forested (>95 ha forest cover) in year 2000. Values ranged from 0 ha lost to 100 ha lost on a continuous scale. Confidence intervals for the unmatched dataset are derived from an independent samples t-test. Confidence intervals for the matched dataset are derived from the matching algorithm, <i>MatchIt</i>. The mean difference is between: (i) Timber Concession plots (TC) and Oil Palm Concession plots (OPC); (ii) Timber Concession plots (TC) and Protected Area plots (PA) ; and Timber Concession plots (TC) and managed Protected Area plots (i.e. national parks and nature reserves, but excluding watershed protection forests which are generally not managed).</p

Panel A: protected areas (110,232 km²; brown), timber concessions (105,945 km²; light green), and industrial oil palm plantation concessions (115,500 km²; pink) in 2010 for Kalimantan (532,100 km²), and the spatial distribution of the 3,391 forest plots (100 ha each; black boxes). Panel B: remaining forest in 2010 (dark green), deforestation from 2000–2010 (red), main roads (black lines), realized oil palm plantations in 2000 (purple), urban areas (yellow) and palm oil mills (black dots).

<p>Panel A: protected areas (110,232 km²; brown), timber concessions (105,945 km²; light green), and industrial oil palm plantation concessions (115,500 km²; pink) in 2010 for Kalimantan (532,100 km²), and the spatial distribution of the 3,391 forest plots (100 ha each; black boxes). Panel B: remaining forest in 2010 (dark green), deforestation from 2000–2010 (red), main roads (black lines), realized oil palm plantations in 2000 (purple), urban areas (yellow) and palm oil mills (black dots).</p

Summary of balance of the control variables before and after matching for Protected Area (PA) and natural forest Timber Concession (TC) plots.

<p>Summary of balance of the control variables before and after matching for Protected Area (PA) and natural forest Timber Concession (TC) plots.</p