Response of mycorrhizal and P-fertilized soybeans to nodulation by Bradyrhizobium or ammonium nitrate

Includes bibliographical references (page 150).Management of N2-fixing bacteria or P-scavenging endomycorrhizae may lead to decreased fertilizer use on extensively cropped lands. To measure the effectiveness of these microsymbionts, soybean [Glycine max (L.) Merr. cv. Amsoy 71] plants were grown in a growth chamber in a soil [Josephine silty clay loam (mesic Typic Haploxerult)] low in plant-available N and P. Plants were inoculated with different Bradyrhizobium strains or received nutrient solutions of different N concentrations (0.0, 1.0, 2.0, 4.0 mM N) and P adequate for maximum plant growth under these conditions. Other plants were infected with a vesicular-arbuscular mycorrhizal (VAM) fungus and a Bradyrhizobium strain and received no N or P in the nutrient solution. The purpose of this study was to determine the growth response of soybean to N fertilization or nodulation by B. japonicum under conditions of high P availability or V AM-assisted P uptake. Nodulated non-VAM soybean plants had dry weights and development similar to that of the 4.0 mM N fertilizer treatment. Total N and Mn, leaf area, and leaf P of nodulated plants were higher than in the comparable N-fertilized plants in the absence of P stress. Soybeans infected with both the VAM fungus and Bradyrhizobium were similar in total dry weight, leaf area, and development to plants that received 1.0 or 2.0 mM N. They, however, contained more leaf N, more root Cu and Zn, and less Mn and P than the 2.0 mM N treatment. It is concluded that a number of host characteristics of nodulated plants are due to the altered functional aspects of the symbiosis and not N input alone. The presence of the VAM fungus can decrease nutrient stress in environments limited in P, Zn and Cu, elements essential in N2 fixation

Comparisons between P-fertilized and mycorrhizal plants

Includes bibliographical references (pages 155-156).In experimentation with vesicular-arbuscular mycorrhizal (VAM) fungi, the availability of non-VAM control plants of equal size to VAM plants is a fundamental requirement. The purpose of this work was to determine nutrient regimes needed to achieve growth equivalence between VAM and non-VAM plants. Soybean [Glycine max (L.)Merr.] cv. Amsoy 71 and sorghum [Sorghum bicolor (L.) Moench] cv. Bok 8 plants were grown under controlled conditions in a soil (Josephine silty clay loam, mesic Typic Haploxerult) low in plant-available P. Soybeans were inoculated with one of four species and sorghum with one of two species of VAM fungi. Non-inoculated control plants received nutrient solutions that contained 0.0, 0.2, 0.4, or 1.0 mM P. while the growth of P-supplemented controls may be equivalent to VAM plants, an important question remains: Are these plants also equivalent in terms of such functional parameters as leaf development, dry matter partitioning, and nutrient assimilation? The objective of this experiment was to answer these questions. The response to VAM colonization was similar in both hosts, although less extensive colonization was observed in sorghum. Dry weight, leaf area, and P content increased exponentially with nutrient solution P level. Plants colonized with VAM fungi grew 3 to 6 times larger than the P-free controls but attained only 35 to 65% of maximum growth possible with high fertilizer P input. Host response to VAM colonization was equivalent to that of plants receiving between 0.12 and 0.22 mM P for phytomass, leaf area, and N content. Mycorrhizal plants contained less P, Mn, and root Fe but more Zn and Cu than comparable plants fertilized with P. It was concluded that P-treated, non-VAM plants differed physiologically and anatomically from VAM plants of equivalent size grown under P stress. It may therefore be necessary to establish the comparability of VAM plants and of "VAM-equivalent controls" separately for each plant parameter of interest. Even then, differential growth responses in VAM-host associations may prevent complete comparability between VAM and P-fertilized plants

Influence of plant residues on denitrification rates in conventional and zero tilled soils, The

Includes bibliographical references (page 794).A field study was conducted with treatments consisting of a factorial combination of N (0 or 100 kg N ha−1 as (NH4)2SO4, straw (0 or 3000 kg ha−1), and two tillage treatments. Ground straw was mixed with the plow layer of soil in the conventional till (CT) plots and chopped straw was spread over the surface of the zero till (ZT) plots. Wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) was grown as the test crop. Gaseous losses of N were measured using the acetylene inhibition-soil core technique and compared with loss estimates obtained from the imbalance in the N budget of 15N-treated microplots located within the larger yield plots. When adequate inorganic N was present, the incorporation of straw in CT soil or the application of straw on the surface of ZT soil approximately doubled the accumulative gaseous N losses. The straw apparently increased the supply of energy material available to denitrifying organisms, and also increased surface soil moisture content (particularly during the month of June). This further stimulated denitrification in ZT soil. Unaccounted 15N on the fertilizer N balance studies agreed closely with cumulative N losses using the acetylene inhibition technique

Injection of nitrogen-15 into trees to study nitrogen cycling in soil

Includes bibliographical references (page 319).Most 15N dilution techniques disturb either the soil or N-pool size. The objective of this study was to develop a method of labeling the roots of Populus trees with 15N without physically disturbing the soil. Such a method would enable the direct measurement of the flux of 15N from dead roots into the soil organic matter. Leaf and root biomass were labeled by injection of 15N directly into the vessel elements of hybrid Populus trees during their second growing season. The 15N was uniformly distributed throughout the canopy and root system. The rate and amount of 15N turnover from plant tissue can be determined by pool transfer or through differences in plant 15N concentrations. The 15N was detected in the dead-root pool 8 wk after injection, indicating root turnover. Results demonstrate the ability to measure the contribution of fine-root litter to N-cycling processes without disturbing the soil environment

Unveiling Vulnerabilities in Interpretable Deep Learning Systems with Query-Efficient Black-box Attacks

Deep learning has been rapidly employed in many applications revolutionizing many industries, but it is known to be vulnerable to adversarial attacks. Such attacks pose a serious threat to deep learning-based systems compromising their integrity, reliability, and trust. Interpretable Deep Learning Systems (IDLSes) are designed to make the system more transparent and explainable, but they are also shown to be susceptible to attacks. In this work, we propose a novel microbial genetic algorithm-based black-box attack against IDLSes that requires no prior knowledge of the target model and its interpretation model. The proposed attack is a query-efficient approach that combines transfer-based and score-based methods, making it a powerful tool to unveil IDLS vulnerabilities. Our experiments of the attack show high attack success rates using adversarial examples with attribution maps that are highly similar to those of benign samples which makes it difficult to detect even by human analysts. Our results highlight the need for improved IDLS security to ensure their practical reliability.Comment: arXiv admin note: text overlap with arXiv:2307.0649

Interpretation of soil carbon and nitrogen dynamics in agricultural and afforested soils

Includes bibliographical references (pages 1627-1628).Interpretation of soil organic C (SOC) dynamics depends heavily on analytical methods and management systems studied. Comparison of data from long-term corn (Zea mays)-plot soils in Eastern North America showed mean residence times (MRTs) of SOC determined by 14C dating were 176 times those measured with 13C abundance following a 30-yr replacement of C3 by C4 plants on the same soils. However, MRTs of the two methods were related (r 2 = 0.71). Field 13C MRTs of SOC were also related (R 2 = 0.55 to 0.85) to those measured by 13CO2 evolution and curve fitting during laboratory incubation. The strong relations, but different MRTs, were interpreted to mean that the three methods sampled different parts of a SOC continuum. The SOC of all parts of this continuum must be affected by the same controls on SOC dynamics for this to occur. Methods for site selection, plant biomass, soil sampling and analysis were tested on agricultural, afforested-agriculture, and native forest sites to determine the controls on SOC dynamics. Soil-C changes after afforestation were −0.07 to 0.55 Mg C ha−1 yr−1 on deciduous sites and −0.85 to 0.58 Mg C ha−1 yr−1 under conifers. Soil N changes under afforestation ranged from −0.1 to 0.025 Mg N ha−1 yr−1 Ecosystem N accumulation was −0.09 to 0.08 Mg N ha−1 yr−1 Soil C and N sequestration but not plant biomass were related to soil Ca, Mg, and K contents. Comparative, independent assays of long-term plots provides information for concept testing and the confidence necessary for decision-makers determining C-cycle policies

Biological and molecular structure analyses of the controls on soil organic matter dynamics

Includes bibliographical references (page 170).The dynamics of soil organic carbon (SOC) are controlled by the interaction of biological, physical, and chemical parameters. These are best measured by a combination of techniques such as long-term field sites with a C3↔C4 plant switch. Acid hydrolysis and 14C- dating measure the mean residence time (MRT) of the resistant fraction. Long-term incubation allows the in situ biota to identify and decompose the labile SOC components. Statistical analysis (curve fitting) of the CO2 release curves, determines the pool size and of the two labile fractions (1). The effect of chemical structure is measured with pyrolysismolecular beam mass spectrometry (py-MBMS). The dynamics of charcoal, clay and silt are measured with both 13C and 14C

Changes in ecosystem carbon following afforestation of native sand prairie

Includes bibliographical references (pages 1622-1624).Determining the dynamics of carbon (C) as a function of vegetation and residue inputs is important for predicting changes in ecosystem functions and the global C cycle. Litter and soil samples were analyzed from plantations of eastern red cedar (Juniperous virginiana) and ponderosa pine (Pinus ponderosa) and native prairie at the Nebraska National Forest to evaluate the impact of different types of land management on soil C contents and turnover rates. Total soil C to a depth of 1 m was greatest in the cedar stands. Pine ecosystems stored more C in the tree biomass and litter but lost more native prairie C from the soil. The soil 13C content showed 82% of the original, and prairie C remained under cedars compared with ∼45% under pine. Soil cation contents were greatest overall in cedar soils and lowest in pine. The C content in cedar soils was strongly related to Ca content. Differences in microbial community fatty acid profiles were related to vegetation type, and nutrients explained ∼60% of the variation in profiles. Our research indicates that changes in soil C and nutrient content following conversion from prairie to forest are dependent on tree species planted, characteristics of the plant litter, and cation cycling in the plant–soil system

Carbon isotope ratios of Great Plains soils and in wheat-fallow systems

Includes bibliographical references (pages 1076-1077).The purposes of this study were to improve knowledge of regional vegetation patterns of C3 and C4 plants in the North American Great Plains and to use δ13C methodology and long-term research sites to determine contributions of small-grain crops to total soil organic carbon (SOC) now present. Archived and recent soil samples were used. Detailed soil sampling was in 1993 at long-term sites near Akron, CO, and Sidney, NE. After soil sieving, drying, and deliming, SOC and δ13C were determined using an automated C/N analyzer interfaced to an isotope-ratio mass spectrometer. Yield records from long-term experimental sites were used to estimate the amount of C3 plant residue C returned to the soil. Results from δ13C analyses of soils from near Waldheim, Saskatchewan, to Big Springs, TX, showed a strong north to south decrease in SOC derived from C3 plants and a corresponding increase from C4 plants. The δ13C analyses gave evidence that C3 plant residue C (possibly from shrubs) is increasing at the Big Springs, TX, and Lawton, OK, sites. Also, δ13C analyses of subsoil and topsoil layers shows evidence of a regional shift to more C3 species, possibly because of a cooler climate during the past few hundreds to thousands of years. Data from long-term research sites indicate that the efficiency of incorporation of small-grain crop residue C was about 5.4% during 84 year at Akron, CO, and about 10.5% during 20 year at Sidney, NE. The 14C age of the SOC at 0- to 10-cm depth was 193 year and at 30 to 45 cm was 4000 yr; 14C age of nonhydrolyzable C was 2000 and 7000 year for these same two respective depths. Natural partitioning of the 13C isotope by the photosynthetic pathways of C3 and C4 plants provides a potentially powerful tool to study SOC dynamics at both regional and local scales

The soil and plant biogeochemistry sampling design for The National Ecological Observatory Network

Human impacts on biogeochemical cycles are evident around the world, from changes to forest structure and function due to atmospheric deposition, to eutrophication of surface waters from agricultural effluent, and increasing concentrations of carbon dioxide (CO2) in the atmosphere. The National Ecological Observatory Network (NEON) will contribute to understanding human effects on biogeochemical cycles from local to continental scales. The broad NEON biogeochemistry measurement design focuses on measuring atmospheric deposition of reactive mineral compounds and CO2 fluxes, ecosystem carbon (C) and nutrient stocks, and surface water chemistry across 20 eco‐climatic domains within the United States for 30 yr. Herein, we present the rationale and plan for the ground‐based measurements of C and nutrients in soils and plants based on overarching or “high‐level” requirements agreed upon by the National Science Foundation and NEON. The resulting design incorporates early recommendations by expert review teams, as well as recent input from the larger natural sciences community that went into the formation and interpretation of the requirements, respectively. NEON\u27s efforts will focus on a suite of data streams that will enable end‐users to study and predict changes to biogeochemical cycling and transfers within and across air, land, and water systems at regional to continental scales. At each NEON site, there will be an initial, one‐time effort to survey soil properties to 1 m (including soil texture, bulk density, pH, baseline chemistry) and vegetation community structure and diversity. A sampling program will follow, focused on capturing long‐term trends in soil C, nitrogen (N), and sulfur stocks, isotopic composition (of C and N), soil N transformation rates, phosphorus pools, and plant tissue chemistry and isotopic composition (of C and N). To this end, NEON will conduct extensive measurements of soils and plants within stratified random plots distributed across each site. The resulting data will be a new resource for members of the scientific community interested in addressing questions about long‐term changes in continental‐scale biogeochemical cycles, and is predicted to inspire further process‐based research