Family and genus level cecal microbiota shifts between the BFe and SFe treatment groups.

<p>(a) Family level changes in the BFe and SFe groups as measured at the end of the study (day 42); (b) Genus level changes in the BFe and SFe groups as measured at the end of the study (day 42).</p

LEfSe method identifying the OTUs with the greatest differences in abundance in the BFe and SFe groups.

<p>(a) Taxonomic cladogram obtained using LEfSe analysis of the 16S rRNA sequences. Treatment groups are indicated by the different colors; (b) Computed LDA scores of the relative abundance difference between the BFe and SFe groups. Comparison of the relative abundance at the (c) phylum; (d) order; (e) family; and (f) genus levels in the BFe and SFe groups.</p

Observed alterations in the metabolic capacity of the cecal microbiota in the BFe group compared to the SFe group.

<p><b>Relative abundance of differentially–enriched KEGG microbial metabolic pathways in cecal microbiota, including</b> a) Unclassified; b) Organismal Systems; c) Human Diseases; d) Genetic Information Processing; e) Environmental Information Processing; and f) Cellular Processes. Treatment groups are indicated by the different colors, and FDR-corrected P values are displayed on the y-axis.</p

Ferritin concentration in <i>Caco-2</i> cells exposed to samples of beans only (whole bean), additional meal plan components and bean-based diets¹^-².

<p>¹Caco-2 bioassay procedures and preparation of the digested samples are described in the materials and methods sections.</p><p>²Cells were exposed to only MEM (minimal essential media) without added</p><p>food digests and Fe (n = 6).</p><p>^a-g Within a column, means without a common letter are significantly different</p><p>(p < 0.05).</p><p>Ferritin concentration in <i>Caco-2</i> cells exposed to samples of beans only (whole bean), additional meal plan components and bean-based diets<a href="http://www.plosone.org/article/info:doi/10.1371/journal.pone.0138479#t002fn001" target="_blank">¹</a>^-<a href="http://www.plosone.org/article/info:doi/10.1371/journal.pone.0138479#t002fn002" target="_blank">²</a>.</p

Ferritin protein and Fe concentration in the liver.

<p>¹Atomic mass for iron is 55.8g/mol</p><p>^a-b Within a column, means without a common letter are significantly different (p < 0.05).</p><p>Ferritin protein and Fe concentration in the liver.</p

Duodenal mRNA gene expression of Fe-related proteins collected on day 42¹.

<p>¹ Changes in mRNA expression are shown relative to expression of 18S rRNA in arbitrary units (AU, * <i>P</i> < 0.05).</p

Fe-related parameters assessed during the study.

<p>(1A) Blood hemoglobin concentration (g/L), (1B) Total body Hb-Fe (mg), (1C) Hemoglobin maintenance efficiency (%). * <i>P</i> < 0.05 between treatment groups.</p

Linoleic Acid:Dihomo-γ-Linolenic Acid Ratio Predicts the Efficacy of Zn-Biofortified Wheat in Chicken (Gallus gallus)

The amount of Zn absorbed from Zn-biofortified wheat material has been determined using an <i>in vivo</i> model of Zn absorption. The erythrocyte linoleic:dihomo -γ-linolenic acid (LA:DGLA) ratio was used as a biomarker of Zn status. Two groups of chickens (<i>n</i> = 15) were fed different diets: a high-Zn (46.5 μg Zn g^–1) and a low-Zn wheat-based diet (32.8 μg Zn g^–1). Dietary Zn intakes, body weight, serum Zn, and the erythrocyte fatty acid profile were measured, and tissues were taken for gene expression analysis. Serum Zn concentrations were greater in the high Zn group (<i>p</i> < 0.05). Duodenal mRNA expression of various Zn transporters demonstrated expression upregulation in the birds fed a low Zn diet (<i>n</i> = 15, <i>p</i> < 0.05). The LA:DGLA ratio was higher in the birds fed the low Zn diet (<i>p</i> < 0.05). The higher amount of Zn in the biofortified wheat resulted in a greater Zn uptake

Alterations in the Gut (<i>Gallus gallus</i>) Microbiota Following the Consumption of Zinc Biofortified Wheat (<i>Triticum aestivum</i>)‑Based Diet

The structure and function of cecal microbiota following the consumption of a zinc (Zn) biofortified wheat diet was evaluated in a well-studied animal model of human nutrition (<i>Gallus gallus</i>) during a six-week efficacy trial. Using 16S rRNA gene sequencing, a significant increase in β- but not α-microbial diversity was observed in the animals receiving the Zn biofortified wheat diet, relative to the control. No significant taxonomic differences were found between the two groups. Linear discriminant analysis revealed a group of metagenomic biomarkers that delineated the Zn replete versus Zn deficient phenotypes, such that enrichment of lactic acid bacteria and concomitant increases in Zn-dependent bacterial metabolic pathways were observed in the Zn biofortified group, and expansion of mucin-degraders and specific bacterial groups able to participate in maintaining host Zn homeostasis were observed in the control group. Additionally, the <i>Ruminococcus</i> genus appeared to be a key player in delineating the Zn replete microbiota from the control group, as it strongly predicts host Zn adequacy. Our data demonstrate that the gut microbiome associated with Zn biofortified wheat ingestion is unique and may influence host Zn status. Microbiota analysis in biofortification trials represents a crucial area for study as Zn biofortified diets are increasingly delivered on a population-wide scale

Demonstrating a Nutritional Advantage to the Fast-Cooking Dry Bean (Phaseolus vulgaris L.)

Dry beans (Phaseolus vulgaris L.) are a nutrient-dense food rich in protein and micronutrients. Despite their nutritional benefits, long cooking times limit the consumption of dry beans worldwide, especially in nations where fuelwood for cooking is often expensive or scarce. This study evaluated the nutritive value of 12 dry edible bean lines that vary for cooking time (20–89 min) from four market classes (yellow, cranberry, light red kidney, and red mottled) of economic importance in bean-consuming regions of Africa and the Americas. When compared to their slower cooking counterparts within each market class, fast-cooking dry beans retain more protein and minerals while maintaining similar starch and fiber densities when fully cooked. For example, some of the highest protein and mineral retention values were measured in the fast-cooking yellow bean cultivar Cebo Cela, which offered 20% more protein, 10% more iron, and 10% more zinc with each serving when compared with Canario, a slow-cooking yellow bean that requires twice the cooking time to become palatable. A Caco-2 cell culture model also revealed the bioavailability of iron is significantly higher in faster cooking entries (<i>r</i> = −0.537, <i>P</i> = 0.009) as compared to slower cooking entries in the same market class. These findings suggest that fast-cooking bean varieties have improved nutritive value through greater nutrient retention and improved iron bioavailability