Fluvial evacuation of landslide material from bedrock-confined channels under controlled experimental conditions

The supply of sediment from hillslopes to channels is rarely constant, with discrete events (e.g., landslides) known to transfer large volumes of sediment in geologically-short periods of time, especially in tectonically active areas. Understanding the rates and patterns of subsequent sediment evacuation is important for understanding variability of landscape evolution, as well as mitigating the risk of geohazards associated with bed aggradation and the loss of channel capacity to convey flood waters. Here, we performed a series of controlled laboratory flume experiments to explore the controls on sediment transport after a single sediment input in scenarios with (i) different initial input volumes (4–25 kg) under constant flow conditions (40 l/s), (ii) a constant initial input volume (12 kg) under different flow magnitudes (5–60 l/s), and (iii) a repeat of the input sediment volumes in scenario (i) but with the same volume of water delivered using a ramped hydrograph (0–60–0 l/s). We find the presence of sediment piles impacts the flow hydraulics, with a backwater effect developing upstream of the pile that causes a flow acceleration around the location of the pile. For a given discharge, larger sediment piles have a greater impact on the flow hydraulics, which in turn induces higher rates of sediment transport and erosion of the pile. In all cases, sediment remains at the initial pile input location for the duration of the sediment evacuation, acting to protect the bed from erosion. We highlight the role of geomorphic-hydraulic interactions in controlling the sediment evacuation, and suggest there is an optimal combination of pile size and flow conditions (flow magnitude and hydrograph shape) for accelerated rates of sediment transport, which are important for the short-term and long-term channel dynamics and the landscape evolution variability

Extreme flood sediment production and export controlled by reach-scale morphology

Rapid earth surface evolution is discrete in nature, with short-duration extreme events having a widespread impact on landscapes despite occurring relatively infrequently. Here, we exploit a unique opportunity to identify the broad, process-based, controls on sediment production and export during extreme rainfall-runoff events through a multi-catchment analysis. A 3 hr extreme rainfall event generated significantly different impacts across three catchments, ranging from (a) sediment export exceeding two orders of magnitude more than the typical long term average to (b) a minimal impact, with this variability primarily controlled by catchment steepness and the presence of reach-scale morphological transitions caused by postglacial landscape adjustment. In any catchment worldwide where populations are at risk, we highlight the importance of combining topographic analysis with detailed mapping of channel bed material (e.g., presence of transitions between process domains) and identification of sediment sources within morphological transition zones for accurately predicting the impact of extreme events.</p

Dynamic bedrock channel width during knickpoint retreat enhances undercutting of coupled hillslopes

Mountain landscapes respond to transient tectonic and climate forcing through a bottom-up response of enhanced bedrock river incision that undermines adjoining hillslopes, thus propagating the signal from the valley bottom to the valley ridges. As a result, understanding the mechanisms that set the pace and pattern of bedrock river incision is a critical first step for predicting the wider mechanisms of landscape evolution. Typically, the focus has been on the impact of channel bed lowering by the upstream migration of knickpoints on the angle, length and relief of adjoining hillslopes with limited attention on the role of dynamic channel width. Here, we present a suite of physical model experiments that show the direct impact of knickpoint retreat on the reach-scale channel width, across a range of flow discharges (8.3 to 50 cm3 s-1) and two sediment discharges (0 and 0.00666 g cm-3). During knickpoint retreat, the channel width narrows to as little as 10% of the equilibrium channel width while the bed shear stress is >100% higher immediately upstream of a knickpoint compared to equilibrium conditions. We show that only a fraction of the channel narrowing can be explained by existing hydraulic theory. Following the passage of a knickpoint, the channel width returns to equilibrium through lateral erosion and widening. For the tested knickpoint height, we demonstrate the lateral adjustment process can be more significant for hillslope stability than the bed elevation change, highlighting the importance of considering both vertical and lateral incision in landscape evolution models. It is therefore important to understand the key processes that drive the migration of knickpoints, as the localised channel geometry response has ongoing implications for the stability of adjoining hillslopes and the supply of sediment to the channel network and export from landscapes onto neighbouring depositional plains.</p

Dynamic bedrock channel width during knickpoint retreat enhances undercutting of coupled hillslopes

Mountain landscapes respond to transient tectonic and climate forcing through a bottom-up response of enhanced bedrock river incision that undermines adjoining hillslopes, thus propagating the signal from the valley bottom to the valley ridges. As a result, understanding the mechanisms that set the pace and pattern of bedrock river incision is a critical first step for predicting the wider mechanisms of landscape evolution. Typically, the focus has been on the impact of channel bed lowering by the upstream migration of knickpoints on the angle, length and relief of adjoining hillslopes with limited attention on the role of dynamic channel width. Here, we present a suite of physical model experiments that show the direct impact of knickpoint retreat on the reach-scale channel width, across a range of flow discharges (8.3 to 50 cm3 s-1) and two sediment discharges (0 and 0.00666 g cm-3). During knickpoint retreat, the channel width narrows to as little as 10% of the equilibrium channel width while the bed shear stress is >100% higher immediately upstream of a knickpoint compared to equilibrium conditions. We show that only a fraction of the channel narrowing can be explained by existing hydraulic theory. Following the passage of a knickpoint, the channel width returns to equilibrium through lateral erosion and widening. For the tested knickpoint height, we demonstrate the lateral adjustment process can be more significant for hillslope stability than the bed elevation change, highlighting the importance of considering both vertical and lateral incision in landscape evolution models. It is therefore important to understand the key processes that drive the migration of knickpoints, as the localised channel geometry response has ongoing implications for the stability of adjoining hillslopes and the supply of sediment to the channel network and export from landscapes onto neighbouring depositional plains.</p

Supplementary Information files for Sediment flux-driven channel geometry adjustment of bedrock and mixed gravel‐bedrock rivers

Supplementary Information files for Sediment flux-driven channel geometry adjustment of bedrock and mixed gravel‐bedrock riversSediment supply (Qs) is often overlooked in modelling studies of landscape evolution, despite sediment playing a key role in the physical processes that drive erosion and sedimentation in river channels. Here, we show the direct impact of the supply of coarse-grained, hard, sediment on the geometry of bedrock channels from the Rangitikei river, New Zealand. Channels receiving a coarse bedload sediment supply are systematically (up to an order of magnitude) wider than channels with no bedload sediment input for a given discharge. We also present physical model experiments of a bedrock river channel with a fixed water discharge (1.5 l/min) under different Qs (between 0 and 20 g/l) that allow the quantification of the role of sediment in setting the width and slope of channels and the distribution of shear stress within channels. The addition of bedload sediment increases the width, slope, and width-to-depth ratio of the channels, and increasing sediment loads promote emerging complexity in channel morphology and shear stress distributions. Channels with low Qs are characterised by simple in-channel morphologies with a uniform distribution of shear stress within the channel while channels with high Qs are characterised by dynamic channels with multiple active threads and a non-uniform distribution of shear stress. We compare bedrock channel geometries from the Rangitikei and the experiments to alluvial channels and demonstrate that the behaviour is similar, with a transition from single thread and uniform channels to multiple threads occurring when bedload sediment is present. In the experimental bedrock channels, this threshold Qs is when the input sediment supply exceeds the transport capacity of the channel. Caution is required when using the channel geometry to reconstruct past environmental conditions or to invert for tectonic uplift rates, because multiple configurations of channel geometry can exist for a given discharge, solely due to input Qs.<br

Reconstructing glacial outburst floods (jökulhlaups) from geomorphology: challenges, solutions, and an enhanced interpretive framework

Glacial outburst floods (jökulhlaups) have been significant drivers of landscape change across Earth throughout the Quaternary and are a contemporary hazard in Arctic and alpine regions worldwide. Geomorphologic evidence is a foundation for reconstructing past and contemporary flood events and using additional analytical methods such as geochronology and paleohydraulics. Yet, accurate interpretation of jökulhlaup landforms and depositional sequences poses a persistent challenge due to complex controls on flood hydraulics and landscape evolution. Researchers have developed numerous strategies to reduce or resolve these challenges, but a comprehensive, globally applicable model to interpret flood evidence outside of sedimentary environments is lacking. This article synthesizes existing case studies to describe jökulhlaup geomorphologic interpretive challenges, discuss strategies to resolve them, and present a conceptual model of flood landform assemblages to illustrate hydraulic and environmental controls on resultant geomorphologic impacts. This enhanced interpretive framework aids researchers in identifying, interpreting, and testing geomorphologic evidence to reconstruct past jökulhlaups and predict future flood impacts as robustly as possible at a global, landscape-wide scale. Understanding jökulhlaup geomorphology yields insight into glacial lake and ice margin dynamics, the role of extreme events in landscape evolution, and interactions between climate, ice sheets, and hydrology. Moreover, it is increasingly important as glacial outburst floods may become more frequent due to climate-driven ice retreat, advancing predictive capacities to mitigate societal risk downstream.</div