Food and High Value Products from Microalgae: Market Opportunities and Challenges

Microalgae are a potential source of molecules for a wide range of food and novel high-value products and have good market opportunities. They can be used in biofuels, health complements, feed, medicine and cosmetics. The development of innovative and sustainable technologies with minimum energy inputs is required for large-scale cultivation and downstream processing of lipids and hydrocarbons in order for the production to be economically viable. In addition, the viability of bioenergy production from microalgae biomass is contingent on the net energy gain of the overall process, with exhaustive utilization of algal biomass for biofuel and other co-products for feed, food, and chemicals. The energy output from the biomass as fuel has to be greater than the energy required to produce and process the algae. Microalgae produce a comprehensive variety of bioproducts such as enzymes, pigments, lipids, sugars, vitamins and sterols. Moreover, its capability to alter atmospheric CO2 into beneficial products such as lipids, carbohydrates, metabolites and proteins cannot be overstated. The key challenges appear to be high cost of operation, infrastructure and maintenance, selection of algal strains with high protein contents, dewatering and commercial scale harvesting. Optimizing the manufacture and commercialization of microalgae value products depend also on numerous factors (such as market and financial affairs). There is limitation of authentic and reliable data and statistics of microalgae market opportunities which make it difficult to assess their actual potential. Long-term research is needed to develop systems for the production of sustainable algal-based products, as sustainability is a key concern especially for food, feed and fuel

The autonomic nervous system

The autonomic nervous system innervates the visceral organs, the glands and the blood vessels. It regulates the internal environment, and it is largely responsible for maintaining normal bodily functions such as respiration, blood pressure and micturition. The peripheral autonomic nervous system consists of two parts, a thoracolumbar or sympathetic and a craniosacral or parasympathetic division, which usually have antagonistic effects (Sect. 12.2). The sympathetic system is organized to mobilize the body for activities, especially in stressful situations (Cannon’s fight or flight), whereas the parasympathetic system in particular stimulates the peristaltic and secretory activities of the gastrointestinal tract (also known as rest and digest response). The peripheral part of the autonomic nervous system includes neurons in the viscera and peripheral ganglia, which are innervated by the lateral horn of the spinal cord and certain brain stem nuclei. Neuronal plexuses in the gastrointestinal tract form the enteric nervous system, which is often viewed as the third component of the autonomic nervous system. Tonically active bulbar centres control vital functions such as blood pressure and respiration. The autonomic centres in the brain stem and spinal cord are reciprocally connected with the central autonomic network (Sect. 12.3), which includes the hypothalamus and several other forebrain (in particular the extended amygdala and the insula) and brain stem structures such as the periaqueductal grey and the parabrachial nucleus. This network is essential for the integration of autonomic, endocrine and somatomotor functions. The peripheral and central autonomic pathways may be affected by many diseases, which cause derangement of autonomic functions as exemplified in several Clinical Cases on disorders of the neural control of blood pressure, breathing and micturition. The English terms of the Terminologia Neuroanatomica are used throughout

Lateral hypothalamic circuits for feeding and reward

In experiments conducted over 60 years ago, the lateral hypothalamic area (LHA) was identified as a critical neuroanatomical substrate for motivated behavior. Electrical stimulation of the LHA induces voracious feeding even in non-restricted animals. In the absence of food, animals will work tirelessly, often lever-pressing 1000’s of times per hour, for electrical stimulation at the same site that provokes feeding, drinking, and other species-typical motivated behaviors. Here we review the classic findings from electrical stimulation studies and integrate them with more recent work that has utilized contemporary circuit-based approaches to study the LHA. We identify specific anatomically and molecularly defined LHA elements that integrate diverse information arising from cortical, extended amygdala, and basal forebrain networks to ultimately generate a highly specified and invigorated behavioral state conveyed via LHA projections to downstream reward and feeding specific circuits

Imaging the neural circuitry and chemical control of aggressive motivation

<p>Abstract</p> <p>Background</p> <p>With the advent of functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) in awake animals it is possible to resolve patterns of neuronal activity across the entire brain with high spatial and temporal resolution. Synchronized changes in neuronal activity across multiple brain areas can be viewed as functional neuroanatomical circuits coordinating the thoughts, memories and emotions for particular behaviors. To this end, fMRI in conscious rats combined with 3D computational analysis was used to identifying the putative distributed neural circuit involved in aggressive motivation and how this circuit is affected by drugs that block aggressive behavior.</p> <p>Results</p> <p>To trigger aggressive motivation, male rats were presented with their female cage mate plus a novel male intruder in the bore of the magnet during image acquisition. As expected, brain areas previously identified as critical in the organization and expression of aggressive behavior were activated, e.g., lateral hypothalamus, medial basal amygdala. Unexpected was the intense activation of the forebrain cortex and anterior thalamic nuclei. Oral administration of a selective vasopressin V_1areceptor antagonist SRX251 or the selective serotonin reuptake inhibitor fluoxetine, drugs that block aggressive behavior, both caused a general suppression of the distributed neural circuit involved in aggressive motivation. However, the effect of SRX251, but not fluoxetine, was specific to aggression as brain activation in response to a novel sexually receptive female was unaffected.</p> <p>Conclusion</p> <p>The putative neural circuit of aggressive motivation identified with fMRI includes neural substrates contributing to emotional expression (i.e. cortical and medial amygdala, BNST, lateral hypothalamus), emotional experience (i.e. hippocampus, forebrain cortex, anterior cingulate, retrosplenial cortex) and the anterior thalamic nuclei that bridge the motor and cognitive components of aggressive responding. Drugs that block vasopressin neurotransmission or enhance serotonin activity suppress activity in this putative neural circuit of aggressive motivation, particularly the anterior thalamic nuclei.</p

Mechanical preparation of root canals: shaping goals, techniques and means

Preparation of root canal systems includes both enlargement and shaping of the complex endodontic space together with its disinfection. A variety of instruments and techniques have been developed and described for this critical stage of root canal treatment. Although many reports on root canal preparation can be found in the literature, definitive scientific evidence on the quality and clinical appropriateness of different instruments and techniques remains elusive. To a large extent this is because of methodological problems, making comparisons among different investigations difficult if not impossible. The first section of this paper discusses the main problems with the methodology of research relating to root canal preparation while the remaining section critically reviews current endodontic instruments and shaping techniques