“Lived the Pandemic Twice”: A Scoping Review of the Unequal Impact of the COVID‐19 Pandemic on Asylum Seekers and Undocumented Migrants

Background: Emerging evidence suggests that the COVID‐19 pandemic is widening prepandemic health, social, and economic inequalities between refugees, migrants, and asylum seekers and the general population. This global scoping review examined the impact of the pandemic on community‐based asylum seekers and undocumented migrants in high‐ and upper‐middle‐income countries. Methods: We conducted a systematic search of peer‐reviewed articles in PubMed, Scopus, Web of Science, and ProQuest Central. We applied Katikireddi’s framework of understanding and addressing inequalities to examine the differential impact of the pandemic across exposure, vulnerability to infection, disease consequences, social consequences, effectiveness of control measures, and adverse consequences of control measures. Results: We included 32 articles in the review. The analysis showed that asylum seekers and undocumented migrants experienced greater exposure to the COVID‐19 virus and higher infection rates. They also experienced differential social consequences in the form of job loss and lost and/or reduced work hours. The effectiveness of pandemic response measures on asylum seekers and undocumented migrants was also affected by pre‐pandemic social and economic marginalisation, exclusion from pandemic‐induced policy measures, lack of appropriate pandemic communication, and variable trust in governments and authority. Pandemic control measures had greater adverse consequences on asylum seekers and undocumented migrants than the general population, with the majority of studies included in this review reporting worsened mental health and social isolation conditions and reduced access to health care. Conclusions: Asylum seekers and undocumented migrants experienced a disproportionate impact of the COVID‐19 pandemic across the six thematic areas of comparison. Policies that reduce exposure and vulnerability to the infection, grant equitable access to health and social care, and build capacities and resilience, are critical to enable asylum seekers and undocumented migrants to cope with and recover from pre‐pandemic and pandemic‐induced inequalities

Investigating Demand for Weather Index Insurance: Experimental Evidence from Ethiopia

There is much interest in weather index insurance as a poverty‐mitigating tool, but concerns persist about potential demand for the product among the poorest of the poor. This paper relates the experiences in rural areas of Tigray region, Ethiopia through both commercial sign‐up data and a series of experimental games conducted to test demand for weather index insurance. Demand was observed to be considerable in both.Risk and Uncertainty,

Resistance to Botrytis cinerea in Solanum lycopersicoides Involves Widespread Transcriptional Reprogramming.

Background Tomato (Solanum lycopersicum), one of the world’s most important vegetable crops, is highly susceptible to necrotrophic fungal pathogens such as Botrytis cinerea and Alternaria solani. Improving resistance through conventional breeding has been hampered by a shortage of resistant germplasm and difficulties in introgressing resistance into elite germplasm without linkage drag. The goal of this study was to explore natural variation among wild Solanum species to identify new sources of resistance to necrotrophic fungi and dissect mechanisms underlying resistance againstB. cinerea. Results Among eight wild species evaluated for resistance against B. cinerea and A. solani, S. lycopersicoides expressed the highest levels of resistance against both pathogens. Resistance against B. cinerea manifested as containment of pathogen growth. Through next-generation RNA sequencing and de novo assembly of the S. lycopersicoides transcriptome, changes in gene expression were analyzed during pathogen infection. In response to B. cinerea, differentially expressed transcripts grouped into four categories: genes whose expression rapidly increased then rapidly decreased, genes whose expression rapidly increased and plateaued, genes whose expression continually increased, and genes with decreased expression. Homology-based searches also identified a limited number of highly expressed B. cinerea genes. Almost immediately after infection by B. cinerea, S. lycopersicoides suppressed photosynthesis and metabolic processes involved in growth, energy generation, and response to stimuli, and simultaneously induced various defense-related genes, including pathogenesis-related protein 1 (PR1), a beta-1,3-glucanase (glucanase), and a subtilisin-like protease, indicating a shift in priority towards defense. Moreover, cluster analysis revealed novel, uncharacterized genes that may play roles in defense against necrotrophic fungal pathogens in S. lycopersicoides. The expression of orthologous defense-related genes in S. lycopersicum after infection with B. cinerea revealed differences in the onset and intensity of induction, thus illuminating a potential mechanism explaining the increased susceptibility. Additionally, metabolic pathway analyses identified putative defense-related categories of secondary metabolites. Conclusions In sum, this study provided insight into resistance against necrotrophic fungal pathogens in the Solanaceae, as well as novel sequence resources for S. lycopersicoides

Visceral leishmaniasis patients display altered composition and maturity of neutrophils as well as impaired neutrophil effector functions

Immunologically, active visceral leishmaniasis (VL) is characterised by profound immunosuppression, severe systemic inflammatory responses and an impaired capacity to control parasite replication. Neutrophils are highly versatile cells, which play a crucial role in the induction as well as the resolution of inflammation, the control of pathogen replication and the regulation of immune responses. Neutrophil functions have been investigated in human cutaneous leishmaniasis, however, their role in human visceral leishmaniasis is poorly understood. In the present study we evaluated the activation status and effector functions of neutrophils in patients with active VL and after successful anti-leishmanial treatment. Our results show that neutrophils are highly activated and have degranulated; high levels of arginase, myeloperoxidase and elastase, all contained in neutrophils’ granules, were found in the plasma of VL patients. In addition, we show that a large proportion of these cells are immature. We also analysed effector functions of neutrophils that are essential for pathogen clearance and show that neutrophils have an impaired capacity to release neutrophil extracellular traps, produce reactive oxygen species and phagocytose bacterial particles, but not Leishmania parasites. Our results suggest that impaired effector functions, increased activation and immaturity of neutrophils play a key role in the pathogenesis of VL

Current Situation and Future of Sorghum Germplasm

Collection and conservation of sorghum germplasm was accelerated about two decades ago because of the danger caused to the landraces by the release of new varieties and hybrids. For example, "Zera-zera" and "Hegari" landraces of sorghum once present in the Gezira province of Sudan are now completely out of cultivation (Prasada Rao and Mengesha 1980). Although landraces are still found in Africa and Asia in large areas, it is no longer safe to expect that the same situation will exist after another 10 years. Our recent experience shows that several primitive landraces once abundant in parts of Africa and Asia are now extinct. Therefore, we are now in a critical, transitional stage when there is an urgent need to collect and conserve the traditional landraces and their wild relatives at an accelerated pace

A pointed collection of zera-zera sorghums in the Gambella area of Ethiopia

'Zera-Zera' Sorghum belonging to the race'caudatum' and intermediate race 'caudatum-guinea' are used extensively in several Sorghum improvement Program These are highly prized for their yield, grain quality and resistances to diseases and drought. 2. A Pointed colletion was organised in the Gambella region of Ethiopia where Zera-Zera sorghum are extensively grown on the river 'Baro' after the receding of floods. 'Agnwak' tribe farmers are exclusively associated with the cultivation of Zera-Zeras in this area. 3. The geographic distribution of 'Zera-Zera' sorghum in the Ethio-Sudanese border suggests their predominance in this region. The ethnic relationship of the sorghum growing tribe 'Agnwak' their relatively close resemblance of movement supports this. 4.Sorghum belonging to the group Zera-Zera, are locally named as 'Ganga','Juwalum' and 'Utedit'. Plants are agronomically superior, with attractive heads and good grain quality. Plants are tan and practically free from diseases inspite of the high temperatures and humidity prevailing during seed setting. This suggests their possible utilization as source material in the breeding projects for yield, grain quality and resistances for grain moulds and leaf diseases. 5. Most of the samples collected are from crops grown after the receding of floods with the residual moisture under high atmosphere temeratures. It is reasonable to assume that some of the lines may be heat tolerant. 6. Since the season and cultivation of Zera-zeras somewhat correspond to the rabi (post rainy season) situation in India, some of the lines could directly enter into the 'rabi program' breeding project. 7. In general the present collection forms a good addition to the existing few Zera-Zera and provide a broad genetic base to work with in the breeding program. 8. As in the case with other Zera-zeras the only restriction for the easy flow into improvement programs may be their photoperiod sensitivity. To circumvent this, some of the Zera-zeras will soon be converted by inculding in the 'Introgression and Conversion Project'

Morphology and distribution of Zerazera sorghums

Zerazera sorghums are distributed in Sudan and Ethiopia. Because of their agronomic eliteness zerazera sorghums are used extensively in several sorghum improvement programs in India and elsewhere. Extensive collections of zerazeras were made in Sudan and Ethiopia by ICRISAT in 1979 and 1981 respectively. Morphological affinity, geographic distribution and the ethnic association of the Sudan and Ethiopian zerazeras suggest that zerazera sorghums were introduced from Sudan into the Gambella area of Ethiopia. Inspite of slight differences, zerazera sorghums from Sudan and Ethiopia can be grouped as subrace Zerazera under race Caudatum

World Sorghum Germplasm Collection And Conservation

Germplasm is the most important raw material for any crop improvement program, and yet the possible extinction of this invaluable resource is a reality the world has to face (10,18). The origin and early domestication of sorghum most probably took place in the northeast quadrant of Africa, in the Ethiopia-Sudan border area extending westward to Chad (3,8). Other areas in West Africa and Asia are also important centers of diversity. It is in these areas that original landraces still exist but are also endangered (6, 18). If man is to avert food shortages and subsequent famines, he has to accelerate crop improvement programs, starting with the collection and conservation of the vanishing germplasm