L’efficacité contestée du recours aux agents de santé communautaires pour la prise en charge du paludisme : évaluation du programme burkinabé dans les districts de Kaya et de Zorgho

Contexte. Le paludisme provoque annuellement le décès d’environ 25 000 enfants de moins de cinq ans au Burkina Faso. Afin d’améliorer un accès rapide à des traitements efficaces, les autorités burkinabées ont introduit en 2010 la prise en charge du paludisme par les agents de santé communautaires (ASC). Alors que son efficacité a été démontrée dans des études contrôlées, très peu d’études ont évalué cette stratégie implantée dans des conditions naturelles et à l’échelle nationale. Objectif. L’objectif central de cette thèse est d’évaluer, dans des conditions réelles d’implantation, les effets du programme burkinabé de prise en charge communautaire du paludisme sur le recours aux soins des enfants fébriles. Les objectifs spécifiques sont : (1) de sonder les perceptions des ASC à l’égard du programme et explorer les facteurs contextuels susceptibles d’affecter leur performance ; (2) d’estimer le recours aux ASC par les enfants fébriles et identifier ses déterminants ; (3) de mesurer, auprès des enfants fébriles, le changement des pratiques de recours aux soins induit par l’introduction d’une intervention concomitante – la gratuité des soins dans les centres de santé. Méthodes. L’étude a été conduite dans deux districts sanitaires similaires, Kaya et Zorgho. Le devis d’évaluation combine des volets qualitatifs et quantitatifs. Des entrevues ont été menées avec tous les ASC de la zone à l’étude (N=27). Des enquêtes ont été répétées annuellement entre 2011 et 2013 auprès de 3002 ménages sélectionnés aléatoirement. Les pratiques de recours aux soins de tous les enfants de moins de cinq ans ayant connu un récent épisode de maladie ont été étudiées (N2011=707 ; N2012=787 ; N2013=831). Résultats. Les résultats montrent que le recours aux ASC est très modeste en comparaison de précédentes études réalisées dans des milieux contrôlés. Des obstacles liés à l’implantation du programme de prise en charge communautaire du paludisme ont été identifiés ainsi qu’un défaut de faisabilité dans les milieux urbains. Enfin, l’efficacité du programme communautaire a été négativement affectée par l’introduction de la gratuité dans les centres de santé. Conclusion. La prise en charge communautaire du paludisme rencontre au Burkina Faso des obstacles importants de faisabilité et d’implantation qui compromettent son efficacité potentielle pour réduire la mortalité infantile. Le manque de coordination entre le programme et des interventions locales concomitantes peut générer des effets néfastes et inattendus.Context. In Burkina Faso, malaria causes approximately 25,000 deaths every year in children under five. In 2010, national health authorities introduced case management of malaria by community health workers (CHWs) as a way to increase prompt access to effective treatments. While this strategy’s efficacy has been demonstrated in controlled studies, very few studies evaluated its effectiveness under real-world and nation-wide conditions of implementation. Objective. The overarching aim of this thesis is to evaluate the effects of the Burkinabè program on treatment-seeking practices in febrile children. The specific objectives are: (1) to examine CHWs’ perceptions and investigate the contextual factors likely to affect their performance; (2) to estimate the use of CHWs in febrile children and its determinants; (3) to evalauate changes in treatment-seeking practices induced by the introduction of a concomitant intervention – the removal of user fees at health centres. Methods. The study was conducted in two similar health districts, Kaya and Zorgho. The evaluation design integrates quantitative and qualitative components. Interviews were carried out with all CHWs in the study area (N=27). Surveys were repeated every year from 2011 to 2013 in 3002 randomly selected households. Treatment-seeking practices of all children with a recent sickness episode (N2011=707; N2012=787; N2013=831) were examined. Results. Results show that the use of CHWs is really low in comparison to previous controlled studies. Feasibility issues in urban areas and barriers to implementation of the community case management of malaria programme were identified. Moreover, its effectiveness in rural areas was challenged by the removal of user fees at health centres. Conclusion. In Burkina Faso, community case management of malaria faces serious challenges of feasibility and implentation. These challenges compromise the programme’s potential to reduce child morbidity and mortality. The lack of integration between the programme and local concomitant interventions can generate unpredicted adverse effects

La contractualisation de compagnies militaires privées dans la guerre : retour à l'utilisation des mercenaires ou nouvelle configuration de l'exercice de la violence légitime?

La privatisation des fonctions étatiques s'est étendue, depuis une quinzaine d'années, à un domaine que Weber jugeait intrinsèque à l'État moderne : l'exercice de la violence légitime. En effet, des gouvernements délèguent désormais à des firmes privées l'accomplissement de missions qui relevaient traditionnellement du secteur militaire. Ce retour du privé dans les conflits incite inévitablement au rapprochement entre la privatisation militaire et le mercenariat. Nous nous proposons d'examiner dans ce mémoire la pertinence d'un tel rapprochement sous les angles juridique et sociopolitique. L'analyse qualitative réalisée suggère que la contractual isation de firmes privées dans les conflits interétatiques constitue davantage une configuration nouvelle et inachevée de l'exercice de la violence légitime qu'un regain du mercenariat

National user fee abolition and health insurance scheme in Burkina Faso : how can they be integrated on the road to universal health coverage without increasing health inequities?

Incorporating the free health care policy into a Universal Health Insurance (UHI) scheme was recently introduced (2019) as a solution to the debate about free health care in Burkina Faso. The article discusses options for linking free health care to an insurance plan while limiting the risk of adding to existing health inequities. In line with Universal Health Coverage and improved access to health care, the long-term ambition is for the new UHI national fund to generate surpluses that can partly contribute to sustaining the free health care policy

User fee policies and women’s empowerment : a systematic scoping review

User fee removal policies alone are not enough to improve women’s healthcare decision-making power. Comprehensive and multi-sectoral approaches are needed to bring sustainable change regarding women’s empowerment. A focus on “gender equitable access to healthcare” would serve to reconcile women’s empowerment and efforts to achieve universal health coverage. The article provides a synopsis of research that examined existing literature, with study settings in three low-income countries (Burkina Faso, Mali, Sierra Leone) and two lower-middle countries (Kenya, India). Evidence suggests that user fee removal contributes to improving women’s capacity to make health decisions, but that the impact is limited

Effects of terrorist attacks on access to maternal healthcare services : a national longitudinal study in Burkina Faso

Terrorist attacks constitute a new barrier to already fragile access to maternal healthcare in Burkina Faso. Regional insecurity needs to be recognized and investigated by global health research. The study reveals that terrorist attacks started in 2015 and have grown exponentially, reaching a total of 206 in 2018, and 411 in 2019. Problems can be compounded by the COVID-19 pandemic, which as well, could instigate an upsurge of terrorist activity with increased insecurity across the Sahel region

Risk Factors for Malaria Infection and Seropositivity in the Elimination Area of Grand'Anse, Haiti: A Case-Control Study among Febrile Individuals Seeking Treatment at Public Health Facilities.

The island of Hispaniola aims to eliminate malaria by 2025; however, there are limited data to describe epidemiologic risk factors for malaria in this setting. A prospective case-control study was conducted at four health facilities in southwest Haiti, aiming to describe factors influencing the risk of current and past malaria infection. Cases were defined as individuals attending facilities with current or recent fever and positive malaria rapid diagnostic test (RDT), while controls were those with current or recent fever and RDT negative. Serological markers of recent and cumulative exposure to Plasmodium were assessed using the multiplex bead assay from dried blood spots and used for alternate case definitions. Kuldorff's spatial scan statistic was used to identify local clusters of infection or exposure. Logistic regression models were used to assess potential risk factors for RDT positivity and recent exposure markers, including age-group, gender, and recruiting health facility as group-matching variables. A total of 192 cases (RDT positive) and 915 controls (RDT negative) were recruited. Consistent spatial clusters were identified for all three infection and exposure metrics, indicating temporal stability of malaria transmission at these sites. Risk factors included remoteness from health facilities and household construction, furthermore, insecticide-treated net ownership or use was associated with reduced odds of RDT positivity. These findings indicate the malaria risk in Grand'Anse is driven primarily by location. Travel, occupation, and other behavioral factors were not associated with malaria. These data can support the National Malaria Program to refine and target their intervention approaches, and to move toward elimination

La prévalence et les causes de la déficience visuelle dans la population en situation d'itinérance de la région de Montréal

Contexte : Les populations marginalisées sont plus à risque de présenter des problèmes de santé. La santé oculovisuelle des personnes en situation d’itinérance est peu étudiée. Objectifs : Estimer la prévalence de déficiences visuelles, d’erreurs réfractives non corrigées et des pathologies oculaires chez les personnes en situation d’itinérance de Montréal et leur utilisation des soins oculovisuels. Méthodes : Dix ressources pour personnes en situation d’itinérance dans la région de Montréal ont été choisies par échantillonnage simple stratifié. À chaque lieu, après consentement, 10 participants ont été recrutés aléatoirement et soumis à une évaluation oculovisuelle détaillée (acuités visuelles ETDRS de présentation et avec trou sténopéïque, pression intraoculaire, examen rétinien mydriatique, autoréfractométrie post-mydriase et questionnaire). Résultats : Parmi les 95 participants, l’âge médian est de 49 ans (écart interquartile 38,0 – 56,5). La prévalence de déficience visuelle (acuité visuelle de présentation : meilleur œil < 6/12) est de 24,2% [IC 95%, 15,6-32,8%], contre 6% au Canada (p < 0,001). Après la mesure de l’acuité visuelle avec trou sténopéïque, cette prévalence chute à 5,2% [IC 95%, 0,7-9,7%]. Parmi ceux présentant une déficience visuelle, 12,6% [IC 95%, 5,9-19,3%] ont une cause uniquement réfractive non corrigée et 6,4% [IC 95%, 1,5-11,3%] présentent une pathologie oculaire (cataracte, glaucome ou autre). Finalement, 18,9% [IC 95%, 11,0-26,8%] ont accédé à des soins oculovisuels dans la dernière année, contre 43,8% au Canada (p < 0,0001) et 2,1% n’ont jamais eu d’examen oculovisuel. Conclusion : Ces données suggèrent que la prévalence de déficience visuelle dans la population itinérante montréalaise est élevée et que la majorité des causes sont corrigibles de façon réfractive. Malgré une prévalence de déficience visuelle plus élevée que dans la population canadienne, l’utilisation des soins oculovisuels par cette population est insuffisante. Ceci souligne l’importance d’adapter les modèles d’accès de soins à cette population

Programmatic options for monitoring malaria in elimination settings: easy access group surveys to investigate Plasmodium falciparum epidemiology in two regions with differing endemicity in Haiti.

BACKGROUND: As in most eliminating countries, malaria transmission is highly focal in Haiti. More granular information, including identifying asymptomatic infections, is needed to inform programmatic efforts, monitor intervention effectiveness, and identify remaining foci. Easy access group (EAG) surveys can supplement routine surveillance with more granular information on malaria in a programmatically tractable way. This study assessed how and which type of venue for EAG surveys can improve understanding malaria epidemiology in two regions with different transmission profiles. METHODS: EAG surveys were conducted within the departments of Artibonite and Grand'Anse (Haiti), in regions with different levels of transmission intensity. Surveys were conducted in three venue types: primary schools, health facilities, and churches. The sampling approach varied accordingly. Individuals present at the venues at the time of the survey were eligible whether they presented malaria symptoms or not. The participants completed a questionnaire and were tested for Plasmodium falciparum by a highly sensitive rapid diagnostic test (hsRDT). Factors associated with hsRDT positivity were assessed by negative binomial random-effects regression models. RESULTS: Overall, 11,029 individuals were sampled across 39 venues in Artibonite and 41 in Grand'Anse. The targeted sample size per venue type (2100 in Artibonite and 2500 in Grand'Anse) was reached except for the churches in Artibonite, where some attendees left the venue before they could be approached or enrolled. Refusal rate and drop-out rate were < 1%. In total, 50/6003 (0.8%) and 355/5026 (7.1%) sampled individuals were hsRDT positive in Artibonite and Grand'Anse, respectively. Over half of all infections in both regions were identified at health facilities. Being male and having a current or reported fever in the previous 2 weeks were consistently identified with increased odds of being hsRDT positive. CONCLUSIONS: Surveys in churches were problematic because of logistical and recruitment issues. However, EAG surveys in health facilities and primary schools provided granular information about malaria burden within two departments in Haiti. The EAG surveys were able to identify residual foci of transmission that were missed by recent national surveys. Non-care seeking and/or asymptomatic malaria infections can be identified in this alternative surveillance tool, facilitating data-driven decision-making for improved targeting of interventions

High-throughput malaria serosurveillance using a one-step multiplex bead assay.

BACKGROUND: Serological data indicating the presence and level of antibodies against infectious disease antigens provides indicators of exposure and transmission patterns in a population. Laboratory testing for large-scale serosurveys is often hindered by time-consuming immunoassays that employ multiple tandem steps. Some nations have recently begun using malaria serosurveillance data to make inferences about the malaria exposure in their populations, and serosurveys have grown increasingly larger as more accurate estimates are desired. Presented here is a novel approach of antibody detection using bead-based immunoassay that involves incubating all assay reagents concurrently overnight. RESULTS: A serosurvey in was performed in Haiti in early 2017 with both sera (n = 712) and dried blood spots (DBS, n = 796) collected for the same participants. The Luminex® multiplex bead-based assay (MBA) was used to detect total IgG against 8 malaria antigens: PfMSP1, PvMSP1, PmMSP1, PfCSP, PfAMA1, PfLSA1, PfGLURP-R0, PfHRP2. All sera and DBS samples were assayed by MBA using a standard immunoassay protocol with multiple steps, as well a protocol where sample and all reagents were incubated together overnight-termed here the OneStep assay. When compared to a standard multi-step assay, this OneStep assay amplified the assay signal for IgG detection for all 8 malaria antigens. The greatest increases in assay signal were seen at the low- and mid-range IgG titers and were indicative of an enhancement in the analyte detection, not simply an increase in the background signal of the assay. Seroprevalence estimates were generally similar for this sample Haitian population for all antigens regardless of serum or DBS sample type or assay protocol used. CONCLUSIONS: When using the MBA for IgG detection, overnight incubation for the test sample and all assay reagents greatly minimized hands-on time for laboratory staff. Enhanced IgG signal was observed with the OneStep assay for all 8 malaria antigens employed in this study, and seroprevalence estimates for this sample population were similar regardless of assay protocol used. This overnight incubation protocol has the potential to be deployed for large-scale malaria serosurveys for the high-throughput and timely collection of antibody data, particularly for malaria seroprevalence estimates

Quality control of multiplex antibody detection in samples from large-scale surveys: the example of malaria in Haiti.

Measuring antimalarial antibodies can estimate transmission in a population. To compare outputs, standardized laboratory testing is required. Here we describe the in-country establishment and quality control (QC) of a multiplex bead assay (MBA) for three sero-surveys in Haiti. Total IgG data against 21 antigens were collected for 32,758 participants. Titration curves of hyperimmune sera were included on assay plates, assay signals underwent 5-parameter regression, and inspection of the median and interquartile range (IQR) for the y-inflection point was used to determine assay precision. The medians and IQRs were similar for Surveys 1 and 2 for most antigens, while the IQRs increased for some antigens in Survey 3. Levey-Jennings charts for selected antigens provided a pass/fail criterion for each assay plate and, of 387 assay plates, 13 (3.4%) were repeated. Individual samples failed if IgG binding to the generic glutathione-S-transferase protein was observed, with 659 (2.0%) samples failing. An additional 455 (1.4%) observations failed due to low bead numbers (<20/analyte). The final dataset included 609,438 anti-malaria IgG data points from 32,099 participants; 96.6% of all potential data points if no QC failures had occurred. The MBA can be deployed with high-throughput data collection and low inter-plate variability while ensuring data quality