Is it time to turn our attention toward central mechanisms for post-exertional recovery strategies and performance?

• Central fatigue is accepted as a contributor to overall athletic performance, yet little research directly investigates post-exercise recovery strategies targeting the brain • Current post-exercise recovery strategies likely impact on the brain through a range of mechanisms, but improvements to these strategies is needed • Research is required to optimize post-exercise recovery with a focus on the brain Post-exercise recovery has largely focused on peripheral mechanisms of fatigue, but there is growing acceptance that fatigue is also contributed to through central mechanisms which demands that attention should be paid to optimizing recovery of the brain. In this narrative review we assemble evidence for the role that many currently utilized recovery strategies may have on the brain, as well as potential mechanisms for their action. The review provides discussion of how common nutritional strategies as well as physical modalities and methods to reduce mental fatigue are likely to interact with the brain, and offer an opportunity for subsequent improved performance. We aim to highlight the fact that many recovery strategies have been designed with the periphery in mind, and that refinement of current methods are likely to provide improvements in minimizing brain fatigue. Whilst we offer a number of recommendations, it is evident that there are many opportunities for improving the research, and practical guidelines in this area

What wrist should you wear your actigraphy device on? Analysis of dominant vs. non-dominant wrist actigraphy for measuring sleep in healthy adults

OBJECTIVE: Differences in sleep results due to the placement of actigraphy devices (non-dominant vs. dominant wrist) are yet to be determined. METHODS: 65 nights of data from 13 adult participants was collected while participants wore two actigraphy devices, one on each wrist. Sleep indices including total sleep time (TST), total time in bed (TTB), sleep efficiency (SE%), sleep latency (SL), wake after sleep onset (WASO), sleep onset time (SOT) and wake time (WT) were assessed between the two devices. RESULTS: There were no significant differences between devices for any of the measured sleep variables (p>0.05). SE%, SL and WASO resulted in high correlations between devices (0.89, 0.89 and 0.76, respectively), with all other sleep variables resulting in very high correlations (>0.90) between devices. CONCLUSIONS: Based on our results, it does not seem critical which wrist the actigraphy device is worn on for measuring key sleep variables

The Influence of Match-Day Napping in Elite Female Netball Athletes

Purpose: To assess the effect of match-day napping and duration of naps on perceptual and performance indices in elite female netball players over two consecutive netball seasons. Methods: Fourteen elite female netball athletes (mean ± SD; age = 23 ± 6 yr) participated in an observational study over 26 competition matches. On each match day, athletes provided information on their napping habits, perceived energy levels, and then performed 3 countermovement jumps (CMJ) 3h30 prior to the start of the match. One hour following the match, subjective player performance ratings from the players and two members of the coaching staff were obtained. Naps were characterized into 3 conditions for analysis; No Nap (NN), <20 min Nap (SHORT), and ≥20 min Nap (LONG). Results: A significant difference in peak jump velocity was observed between the SHORT and the NN condition in favor of the shorter nap (3.23 ± 0.26 and 3.07 ± 0.36 m.s-1, respectively, d = 0.34, p < 0.05). A moderate, significant difference (d = 0.85; p < 0.05) was observed for the coach rating of performance (out of 10) between the SHORT and the NN condition (7.2 ± 0.8 and 6.4 ± 0.9, respectively) in favor of SHORT. Conclusion: The findings from the study would suggest that a short nap (<20 min) on the day of competition can enhance jump velocity and improve subjective performance in elite netball players, as assessed by coaching staff

Do young elite football athletes have the same strength and power characteristics as senior athletes?

An increasing number of young football athletes are competing in elite senior level competitions. However, comparison of strength, power, and speed characteristics between young elite football athletes and their senior counterparts, while controlling for anthropometric parameters, is yet to be investigated. Knee extension concentric peak torque, jump performance, and 20 m straight-line speed were compared between age groups of under 17 (U17: n = 24), under 19 (U19: n = 25), and senior (seniors: n = 19) elite, national and international level, male football athletes. Analysis of covariance was performed, with height and body mass used as covariates. No significant differences were found between age groups for knee extension concentric peak torque (p = 0.28–0.42), while an effect was observed when the covariates of height and body mass were applied (p < 0.001). Senior players had greater jump and speed performance, whereas an effect was observed only for the covariate of body mass in the 15 m and 20 m (p < 0.001) speed testing. No differences were observed between U17 and U19 groups for jump and speed performance (p = 0.26–0.46). The current study suggests that younger elite football athletes (<19 years) have lower jump and speed performance than their senior counterparts, but not for strength when height and body mass are considered as covariates. Emphasis should be on power development capacities at the late youth phase when preparing athletes for the senior competition level

Oral β-hydroxybutyrate salt fails to improve 4-minute cycling performance following submaximal exercise

The purpose of the present study was to examine the effects of an oral β-hydroxybutyrate (BHB) supplement on cycling performance. Using a double-blind, placebo-controlled, crossover design, 12 highly-trained cyclists (mean ± SD: age; 35 ± 8 y, mass; 74.5 ± 7.6 kg, VO₂ₚₑₐₖ; 68.0 ± 6.7 ml.min⁻¹kg⁻¹) were supplemented with two 30 ml servings of an oral BHB supplement or placebo formula (PLA) prior to and during exercise. Participants cycled at a submaximal intensity (80% of second ventilatory threshold) for 90-min, followed by a 4-min maximal cycling performance test (4PT). The difference in 4PT power output between trials was not statistically significant (p > 0.05) and was associated with a trivial effect (ES ±90%CI = 0.19 ±0.37). Ingestion of the BHB supplement was associated with a large increase in blood BHB concentrations when compared to PLA for the 4PT (ES = 1.75 ±0.50, p 0.05) and a moderate increase during the 4PT (ES = 0.78 ±0.57, p = 0.03). Submaximal VO₂ did not differ between trials, however, VO₂ was higher during the 4PT phase in the BHB trial (ES = 0.28 ±0.32; small). In conclusion, BHB supplementation altered blood BHB concentrations, RER and VO₂ values during steady state sub-maximal exercise, but did not improve 4-minute cycling performance

Acute post-exercise recovery strategies in Cycling: A Review

Cycling events often include multiple races a day or racing over consecutive days. Congested competition schedules and increased training load have led to the implementation of recovery strategies; with the goal of alleviating postexercise fatigue and enhancing subsequent performance. This review aims to review the efficacy of recovery strategies used following different cycling events. Compression garments have been shown to improve subsequent 30s – 30min mean cycling power and 5-min max cycling power, while cold water immersion may improve 5-15s sprint cycling power output, 1-15min time trial (TT) total work performed and mean power output in hot and humid conditions. Cold water immersion was also more beneficial than active recovery at improving total work performed. Contrast water therapy could increase 15s – 15min TT work performed and sprint mean and peak power output. Similarly, active recovery has been shown to improve low intensity 3 – 15min cycling power and time to completion. Conversely, hot water immersion appears to be detrimental to sprint power output and TT power output over consecutive days. Thermoneutral water immersion appears beneficial for improving average cycling speed and time to completion during a 20-km TT, where humidification therapy and sports massage are beneficial at improving sprint and middle duration time trial performance. A combination of recovery strategies appear more beneficial than stand-alone strategies and various combinations should be explored further

Reliability of a 2-Bout exercise test on a Wattbike cycle ergometer

Purpose: To determine the intraday and interday reliability of a 2 × 4-min performance test on a cycle ergometer (Wattbike) separated by 30 min of passive recovery (2 × 4MMP). Methods: Twelve highly trained cyclists (mean ± SD; age = 20 ± 2 y, predicted VO2max = 59.0 ± 3.6 mL · kg–1 · min–1) completed six 2 × 4MMP cycling tests on a Wattbike ergometer separated by 7 d. Mean power was measured to determine intraday (test 1 [T1] to test 2 [T2]) and interday reliability (weeks 1–6) over the repeated trials. Results: The mean intraday reliabilities of the 2 × 4MMP test, as expressed by the typical error of measurement (TEM, W) and coefficient of variation (CV, %) over the 6 wk, were 10.0 W (95% confidence limits [CL] 8.2–11.8), and 2.6% (95%CL 2.1–3.1), respectively. The mean interday reliability TEM and CV for T1 over the 6 wk were 10.4 W (95%CL 8.7–13.3) and 2.7% (95%CL 2.3–3.5), respectively, and 11.7 W (95%CL 9.8–15.1) and 3.0% (95%CL 2.5–3.9) for T2. Conclusion: The testing protocol performed on a Wattbike cycle ergometer in the current study is reproducible in highly trained cyclists. The high intraday and interday reliability make it a reliable method for monitoring cycling performance and for investigating factors that affect performance in cycling events

No differences in neuromuscular power and range of motion, but greater muscle soreness in young vs masters athletes following a 12km run

The purpose of the study was to assess lower-body neuromuscular power and range of motion in young and masters recreational runners before and after a 12km run. Methods: In a straight-forward parallel group trial, participants performed a number of tests pre and post a 12km run. Participants included 36 recreational runners (mean ± SD; 12km run time: 67 ± 18 mins) and were matched on running ability and divided into two groups; young ( 40 y, n=18). Pre and post measures included body mass, vertical jump height (m), peak jump velocity (m.s-1), sit and reach test (cm), mean 6s cycling power (W), peak cycling power (W) and perceived muscle soreness. Results: There were no significant differences (p > 0.05) between groups for any of the measured variables pre to post run, except for muscle soreness (p < 0.01), where the young group experienced significantly higher levels of soreness, associated with a large effect size between groups (-1.03 ±0.6). Conclusions: There were no differences in neuromuscular power and range of motion between young and masters athletes following a 12km run. This was possibly due to the exercise not being a demanding enough stimulus to cause fatigue in the measures used. However, masters athletes perceived lower levels of muscle soreness pre to post run, possibly due to decreased pain perceptions with aging. Keywords DOMS, Aging, Running, Neuromuscula

Melatonin and sleep responses following exercise in elite female athletes

To determine the melatonin concentrations and subsequent sleep indices of elite netball athletes following a training day when compared to a control day. Ten elite female netball athletes (mean ± SD; age = 23 ± 6 yrs) provided saliva samples PRE (17:15h) and POST (22:00h) a training session, and a day with no training (CONTROL). Sleep monitoring was performed using wrist actigraphy to assess total time in bed (TTB), total sleep time (TST), sleep efficiency (SE) and sleep latency (SL). Melatonin levels were significantly lower (p < 0.05), both PRE and POST the training condition (6.2 and 17.6 pg/mL, respectively) when compared to the CONTROL (14.8 and 24.3 pg/mL, respectively). There were no significant differences observed between conditions for any of the sleep variables. However, a small reduction in TST could be observed following the training session condition compared to the CONTROL condition. The scheduling of netball training in the evening is shown to suppress salivary melatonin levels. This may have an influence on subsequent sleep following night-time exercise

Development of the athlete sleep behavior questionnaire: A tool for identifying maladaptive sleep practices in elite athletes

INTRODUCTION: Existing sleep questionnaires to assess sleep behaviors may not be sensitive in determining the unique sleep challenges faced by elite athletes. The purpose of the current study was to develop and validate the Athlete Sleep Behavior Questionnaire (ASBQ) to be used as a practical tool for support staff working with elite athletes. METHODS: 564 participants (242 athletes, 322 non-athletes) completed the 18-item ASBQ and three previously validated questionnaires; the Sleep Hygiene Index (SHI), the Epworth Sleepiness Scale (ESS) and the Pittsburgh Sleep Quality Index (PSQI). A cohort of the studied population performed the ASBQ twice in one week to assess test-retest reliability, and also performed sleep monitoring via wrist-actigraphy. RESULTS: Comparison of the ASBQ with existing sleep questionnaires resulted in moderate to large correlations (r=0.32 - 0.69). There was a significant difference between athletes and non-athletes for the ASBQ global score (44±6 vs. 41±6, respectively, p<0.01) and for the PSQI, but not for the SHI or the ESS. The reliability of the ASBQ was acceptable (ICC=0.87) when re-tested within 7 days. There was a moderate relationship between ASBQ and total sleep time (r=-0.42). CONCLUSION: The ASBQ is a valid and reliable tool that can differentiate the sleep practices between athletes and non-athletes, and offers a practical instrument for practitioners and/or researchers wanting to evaluate the sleep behaviors of elite athletes. The ASBQ may provide information on areas where improvements to individual athletes' sleep habits could be made