Does the Shape of a Territory Influence the Locations of Human Activities? a Numerical Geography Approach

This paper aims at showing how far the shape of a studied area influences the results of optimal location-allocation models. Simulations are performed on rectangular toy-networks with an equal number of vertices but with different length/width ratios. The case of merging two such networks into a common market is also considered. We limit our experience to the Simple Plant Location Problem (SPLP) which captures the fundamental trade-off of economic geography between accessibility and economies-of-scales. Results are analysed in terms of locations, allocations and costs. The results help at understanding how far an area (country/region) has larger development problems than others just because of its shape and/or of the way this area is linked within a common market (elongation of the country and length of the common border). Several real world examples are discussed when interpreting of the results.

Transportation networks and the location of human activities

The impact of transportation networks on the location of human activities is a surprisingly neglected topic in economic geography. Using the simple plant location problem, this paper investigates such an impact in the case of a few idealized networks. It is seen that a grid network tends to foster a dispersed pattern of activities, while the center of a radial network acts as an attractor. The case of two economies characterized by different network configurations that form a custom union is then analyzed. It is shown that the structural properties of the networks still hold, though some locations are pulled toward the common border. This suggests that no much relocation should be expected within the European Union if the state members endorse similar fiscal and social policies after the formation of the single market.

Neighbourhood effects and endogeneity issues

A recent body of research suggests that the spatial structure of cities might influence the socioeconomic characteristics and outcomes of their residents. In particular, the literature on neighbourhood effects emphasizes the potential influence of the socioeconomic composition of neighbourhoods in shaping individual’s behaviours and outcomes, through social networks, peer influences or socialization effects. However, empirical work still has not reached a consensus regarding the existence and magnitude of such effects. This is mainly because the study of neighbourhood effects raises important methodological concerns that have not often been taken into account. Notably, as individuals with similar socio-economic characteristics tend to sort themselves into certain parts of the city, the estimation of neighbourhood effects raises the issue of location choice endogeneity. Indeed, it is difficult to distinguish between neighbourhood effects and correlated effects, i.e. similarities in behaviours and outcomes arising from individuals having similar characteristics. This problem, if not dequately corrected for, may yield biased results. In the first part of this paper, neighbourhood effects are defined and some methodological problems involved in measuring such effects are identified. Particular attention is paid to the endogeneity issue, giving a formal definition of the problem and reviewing the main methods that have been used in the literature to try to solve it. The second part is devoted to an empirical illustration of the study of neighbourhood effects, in the case of labour-market outcomes of young adults in Brussels. The effect of living in a deprived neighbourhood on the unemployment probability of young adults residing in Brussels is estimated using logistic regressions. The endogeneity of neighbourhood is addressed by restricting the sample to young adults residing with their parents. Then, a ensitivity analysis is used to assess the robustness of the results to the presence of both observed and unobserved parental covariates.neighbourhood effects, endogeneity, self-selection, sensitivity analysis, Brussels

Early Literacy Achievements, Population Density and the Transition to Modern Growth

The transition from economic stagnation to sustained growth is often modelled thanks to “population-induced” productivity improvements, which are assumed rather than derived from primary assumptions. In this paper the effect of population on productivity is derived from optimal behavior. More precisely, both the number and location of education facilities are chosen optimally by municipalities. Individuals determine their education investment depending on the distance to the nearest school, and also on technical progress and longevity. In this setting, higher population density enables the set-up costs of additional schools to be covered, opening the possibility to reach higher educational levels. Using conterfactual experiments we find that one third of the rise in literacy can be directly attributed to the effect of density, while one sixth is linked to higher longevity and one half to technical progress. Moreover, the effect of population density in the model is consistent with the available evidence from England, where it is shown that schools were established at a high rate over the period 1540-1620.Human Capital; Population Density; Education Investment;School Location;Technical Progress

Disentangling the demographic determinants of the English take-off: 1530-1860

We propose amodelwith some of themain demographic, economic and institutional factors usually considered to matter in the transition to modern growth. We apply our theory to England over the period 1530-1860. We use the model to measure the impact of mortality, population density and technological progress on school foundations, literacy and growth through a set of experiments. We find that one third of the rise in literacy over the period 1530-1850 can be directly related to the rise in population density, while one sixth is linked to higher longevity and one half to exogenous total factor productivity growth. Moreover, the timing of the effect of population density in the model is consistent with the available evidence for England, where it is shown that schools were established at a high rate over the period 1540-1620.

NIMBY, taxe fonci ere et vote par les pieds

A community of individuals heterogeneous in terms of revenue occupies a territory subdivided into zones characterized by unequal levels of amenities. Starting from the concept of land rent a la Ricardo, we propose a model determining the bid rents in the diff erent zones as well as the distribution of the population among these. We then study the impact of a shock a ffecting negatively the amenities in one zone on the rents of the other zones via a process of "voting with the feet" a la Tiebout. Starting from this analysis, we propose a taxation of land rent that allows for a compensation of the residents whose neighborhood is directly a ffected by the amenity shock by the other members of the community. Such is system may prevent NIMBY attitudes. Moreover, as far as rent is observable, the mechanism has the advantage of having no preference revelation problem.Une communauté e d'individus h ét érog ene en terme de revenus occupe un territoire divis e en zones caract eris ées par des niveaux d'am enit es di fferents. Partant du concept de rente a la Ricardo, nous proposons un mod èle determinant les rentes o ffertes dans les diff erentes zones et la r épartition de la population entre celles-ci. On étudie ensuite l'impact d'un choc a ffectant n egativement les am enit es d'une zone sur les rentes des autres zone via un processus de "vote par les pieds" à la mani ère de Tiebout. Partant de cette analyse, nous proposons un syst eme de taxation de la rente qui permet une compensation fi nanci ere des r esidents directement aff ect es dans leur voisinage par les individus non touch es. Ce syst eme est susceptible d'att enuer les attitudes du type \NIMBY". De plus, dans la mesure o u la rente est observable, le m ecanisme pr esente l'avantage de ne poser aucun probl eme de r ev elation des pr ef erences

Residential equilibrium in a multifractal metropolitan area

A residential location model derived from urban economics is combined with the geometry of a multifractal Sierpinski carpet to represent and model a metropolitan area. This area is made up of a system of built-up patches hierarchically organised around a city centre, and green areas arranged in an inverse hierarchical order (large open-spaces in the periphery). An analytical solution is obtained by using a specific geographic coding system for computing distances. The values of the parameters used in the model are based on the French medium sized metropolitan areas; a realistic benchmark is proposed and comparative-statics simulations are performed. The results show that the French peri-urbanisation process (which took place from 1970 onward) can be explained by an increase in income and a reduction in transport costs. Nevertheless, changes in household preferences, in particular an increased taste for open spaces, can also contribute to urban sprawl by making the gradient of land rents less steep and by making peripheral household locations more desirableperi-urban, residential localisation, fractal geometry, amenities

On solving complex multi-period location models using simulated annealing

This paper describes a study aimed at evaluating the capabilities of simulated annealing in dealing with complex, real-world multi-period location problems raised by school network planning in Portugal. The problems were formulated as mixed-integer linear optimization models. The models allow for facility closure or size reduction besides facility opening and size expansion, with sizes possibly limited to a set of pre-defined standards. They assume facility costs to be divided into a fix component and two variable components, respectively dependent on facility size and facility attendance. Results obtained through the study indicate that simulated annealing can be a useful tool for solving these kinds of models.http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/B6VCT-426XWHV-H/1/42defe9695efc3f796150d9a3e24bc3

Space-time patterns of urban sprawl, a 1D cellular automata and microeconomic approach

We present a theoretical model of residential growth that emphasizes the path-dependent nature of urban sprawl patterns. The model is founded on the monocentric urban economic model and uses a cellular automata (CA) approach to introduce endogenous neighbourhood effects. Households are assumed to both like and dislike the density of their neighbourhood, and trade-off this density with housing space consumption and commuting costs. Discontinuous spatial patterns emerge from that trade-off, with the size of suburban clusters varying with time and distance to the centre. We use space-time diagrams inspired from 1D elementary CA to visualize changes in spatial patterns through time and space, and undertake sensitivity analyses to show how the pattern and timing of sprawl are affected by neighbourhood preferences, income level, commuting costs or by imposing a green belt.urban sprawl, open space, neighbourhood externalities, cellular automata, residential dynamics.