High-resolution rainfall maps from commercial microwave links for a data-scarce region in West Africa

We present high-resolution rainfall maps from commercial microwave link (CML) data in the city of Ouagadougou, Burkina Faso. Rainfall was quantified based on data from 100 CMLs along unique paths and interpolated to achieve rainfall maps with a 5-min temporal and 0.55-km spatial resolution for the monsoon season of 2020. Established processing methods were combined with newly developed filtering methods, minimizing the loss of data availability. The rainfall maps were analyzed qualitatively both at a 5-min and aggregated daily scales. We observed high spatiotemporal variability on the 5-min scale that cannot be captured with any existing measurement infrastructure in West Africa. For the quantitative evaluation, only one rain gauge with a daily resolution was available. Comparing the gauge data with the corresponding CML rainfall map pixel showed a high agreement, with a Pearson correlation coefficient > 0.95 and an underestimation of the CML rainfall maps of ∼10%. Because the CMLs closest to the gauge have the largest influence on the map pixel at the gauge location, we thinned out the CML network around the rain gauge synthetically in several steps and repeated the interpolation. The performance of these rainfall maps dropped only when a radius of 5 km was reached and approximately one-half of all CMLs were removed. We further compared ERA5 and GPM IMERG data with the rain gauge and found that they had much lower correlation than data from the CML rainfall maps. This clearly highlights the large benefit that CML data can provide in the data-scarce but densely populated African cities

Towards innovative solutions for monitoring precipitation in poorly instrumented regions: real-time system for collecting power levels of microwave links of mobile phone operators for rainfall quantification in Burkina Faso

Since the 1990s, mobile telecommunication networks have gradually become denser around the world. Nowadays, large parts of their backhaul network consist of commercial microwave links (CMLs). Since CML signals are attenuated by rainfall, the exploitation of records of this attenuation is an innovative and an inexpensive solution for precipitation monitoring purposes. Performance data from mobile operators’ networks are crucial for the implementation of this technology. Therefore, a real-time system for collecting and storing CML power levels from the mobile phone operator “Telecel Faso” in Burkina Faso has been implemented. This new acquisition system, which uses the Simple Network Management Protocol (SNMP), can simultaneously record the transmitted and received power levels from all the CMLs to which it has access, with a time resolution of one minute. Installed at “Laboratoire des Matériaux et Environnement de l’Université Joseph KI-ZERBO (Burkina Faso)”, this acquisition system is dynamic and has gradually grown from eight, in 2019, to more than 1000 radio links of Telecel Faso’s network in 2021. The system covers the capital Ouagadougou and the main cities of Burkina Faso (Bobo Dioulasso, Ouahigouya, Koudougou, and Kaya) as well as the axes connecting Ouagadougou to these citie

Influence des facteurs anthropiques et des flux de gènes sur la variabilité génétique des formes cultivées et spontanées du mil dans deux localités du Niger

Le projet a été réalisé au Niger (pays Zarma-Songhai) à l’aide d’analyses anthropologiques et génétiques, autour de deux axes de recherche : i) l’étude des relations entre la diversité des pratiques agricoles, les flux de gènes entre variétés et l’organisation de la diversité aux niveaux agromorphologique et moléculaire ; ii) l’analyse des relations génétiques entre formes cultivées, sauvages et intermédiaires (soun). Les résultats montrent que les pratiques agricoles favorisent les brassages génétiques entre populations variétales, et la dissémination des soun à l’échelle du village et de la région, via les flux de semences. Ceci expliquerait l’abondance des soun dans les champs de la région. L’absence de différenciation génétique (au niveau des marqueurs moléculaires) entre variétés démontre aussi l’importance quantitative des flux de gènes par le biais des hybridations. Ainsi, la gestion des semences, sans doute moins autarcique qu’auparavant, les pratiques culturales et la forte allogamie du mil conduisent à un processus d’homogénéisation, au niveau régional, des variétés cultivées par les agriculteurs. Il est toutefois difficile de savoir s’il s’agit d’un processus récent. Ce processus aurait pour conséquences une déstructuration rapide des qualités d’adaptation des variétés aux conditions locales, et une augmentation de l’introgression par des gènes des formes sauvages dont la présence des soun est une manifestation. Il pourrait à l’extrême conduire à une « dé-domestication » du mil dans ces régions soumises à des pénuries de production chroniques et donc participer à l’aggravation du phénomène.The project was settled mainly in two localities in West Niger (Zarma-Songhai region). It includes both anthropologic and genetic analyses and aims at: i) studying the relationships between farmers’ practices, gene flow and the organization of diversity at morphological and molecular levels: ii) analysing the genetic relationships between domesticated, wild and intermediate forms (soun) of pearl millet based on their genetic and morphological evaluation at the field level. The purpose was to understand the origin of so-called soun (plants with intermediate domesticated/ wild phenotypes) and to evaluate the level of introgression of cultivated populations by genes from the wild. The results showed that, although diverse, farmer practices favour very large genetic admixture at the village and even regional scale, through important seed flows (seed exchanges and supply networks). A consequence of this is the near-absence of any genetic differentiation (at the molecular level) between populations of the same variety cultivated by different farmers, even in remote villages. Both the abundant seed flows and the existence of a large seed bank in the soil could explain why soun are so abundant in large areas in the region, even where no wild forms are found. Moreover, the very low level of genetic differentiation between different varieties (including between early and semi–late flowering ones) can be used as a proof of the sizeable gene flow through hybridization at the field level (different varieties are often found in the vicinity of each other or even in the same field). Farmers are able to identify the different varieties they grow and to manage them separetely. Nevertheless, different factors act together to lead both to the homogeneization of the cultivated gene pools, and then varieties, at large geographical scales and to the existence of gene flow between domesticated and non domesticated forms of pearl millet. In particular, farmers pressures during the seed selection process cannot be neither strong nor evenly applied due to the scarcity in production. We think also they are probably less strong that they used to be; cultural practices and the largely preponderant outcrossing mating system promote hybridization between different varieties; weeding is not efficient and/or discriminant enough to remote all the soun growing in the field, so that the proportion of these plants can sometimes reach several tens per cent. However, it is difficult to ascertain whether we are facing a recent evolutionary process due to dramatic social and ecological (repeated drought) changes. If this were the case, this could lead to a decrease in the level of adaptation of cultivated populations to their local environment and to an increase in their introgression by genes from the wild. At the end, this could lead to a “de-domestication” of pearl millet in this region that already suffers of scarcity in the production of this crop, reinforcing therefore this situation

Ressources génétiques des mils en Afrique de l’Ouest

Le mil constitue, avec le sorgho, la base de l’alimentation d’une part importante des populations indiennes et africaines. Au Niger, deuxième pays producteur en Afrique, cette culture représente les trois quarts de la production céréalière et occupe plus de la moitié des terres cultivées. C’est en Afrique de l’Ouest que se situent les zones d’origine et de diversification des mils cultivés (Penniselum glaucum subsp. glaucum) et l’on peut encore y trouver des populations de la forme sauvage (P. glaucum subsp. monodii). Mieux conserver, évaluer et valoriser ces ressources génétiques, tels sont les enjeux exposés lors de l’atelier « Ressources génétiques des mils et plantes associées en Afrique de l’Ouest » organisé à Niamey en 2002. L’IRD et ses partenaires y ont présenté une synthèse des résultats de recherches pluridisciplinaires (génétique, agronomie, anthropologie) sur le rôle des pratiques paysannes dans la dynamique de la diversité génétique des mils sauvages et cultivés au Niger. Cet atelier a également permis de confronter les expériences et conclusions d’autres équipes et a contribué à la réflexion sur les stratégies de conservation (in et ex situ) et de valorisation des ressources génétiques des mils et de quelques autres plantes cultivées dans les agrosystèmes sahéliens.Pearl millet is, along with sorghum, the staple food for a large part of Indian and African populations. In Niger, the second producing country in Africa, this crop accounts for three quarters of the cereals production and more than half of cultivated land. Regions of origin and diversification of pearl millet (Pennisetum glaucum subsp. glaucum) are located in West Africa, where wild millet populations (P. glaucum subsp. monodii) can still be found. A better conservation, evaluation and valorisation of this diversity is therefore an important challenge, that was adressed during a workshop on genetic resources of pearl millet and associated crops in West Africa, held in Niamey in 2002. IRD and its partners presented there a synthesis of their multidisciplinary research (genetics, agronomy, anthropology) on the role of farmers' practices in the dynamics of genetic diversity of wild and cultivated millets in Niger. The workshop allowed exchanges and comparisons of experience and conclusions of other teams and contributed to the debate on strategies of conservation (in and ex situ) and utilisation of genetic resources of pearl millet and other crops in Sahelian agrosystems.© IRD Éditions, 200