Anchors as Semantic Primes in Value Construction: An EEG Study of the Anchoring Effect

<div><p>Previous research regarding anchoring effects has demonstrated that human judgments are often assimilated to irrelevant information. Studies have demonstrated that anchors influence the economic valuation of various products and experiences; however, the cognitive explanations of this effect remain controversial, and its neural mechanisms have rarely been explored. In the current study, we conducted an electroencephalography (EEG) experiment to investigate the anchoring effect on willingness to accept (WTA) for an aversive hedonic experience and the role of anchors in this judgment heuristic. The behavioral results demonstrated that random numbers affect participants’ WTA for listening to pieces of noise. The participants asked for higher pay after comparing their WTA with higher numbers. The EEG results indicated that anchors also influenced the neural underpinnings of the valuation process. Specifically, when a higher anchor number was drawn, larger P2 and late positive potential amplitudes were elicited, reflecting the anticipation of more intensive pain from the subsequent noise. Moreover, higher anchors induced a stronger theta band power increase compared with lower anchors when subjects listened to the noises, indicating that the participants felt more unpleasant during the actual experience of the noise. The levels of unpleasantness during both anticipation and experience were consistent with the semantic information implied by the anchors. Therefore, these data suggest that a semantic priming process underlies the anchoring effect in WTA. This study provides proof for the robustness of the anchoring effect and neural evidence of the semantic priming model. Our findings indicate that activated contextual information, even seemingly irrelevant, can be embedded in the construction of economic value in the brain.</p></div

Theta band ERS differences.

<p>(A) The time-frequency map shows the subtraction of the ERS of the low anchor condition from that of the high anchor condition over time (x-axis; 0 is onset of the noise stimulus) and frequency (y-axis) at Cz where ERS reached its maximum. The dotted contour corresponds to the window of 80–280 ms, 4–8 Hz from which the topographical map data in (B), (C) and (D) were obtained. (B) Average theta band ERS (high and low anchors) scalp map. (C) Difference in the theta band ERS (high anchor minus low anchor) scalp map. (D) Scalp map of the <i>p</i>-value of the one-tail t-test (high anchor > low anchor) for the theta band ERS. Blue colors indicate <i>p</i> < 0.05.</p

Comparisons of the theta band ERS when the noise was played between the high and low anchor conditions on the left, middle and right hemispheres.

<p>Data were collapsed within five caudalities (F, FC, C, CP and P). Asterisks indicate significant (*<i>p</i> < 0.05) differences between the high and low anchor conditions.</p

Grand-average LPP waveforms from channels CPz, Pz, POz and Oz in two anchor conditions (high, low) time-locked to anchor onset.

<p>Grand-average LPP waveforms from channels CPz, Pz, POz and Oz in two anchor conditions (high, low) time-locked to anchor onset.</p

Forest plots of the sensitivity and speci­ficity for Ber-EP4 in the diagnosis of metastatic adenocarcinoma for all studies.

<p>The point estimates of sensitivity and specificity for each study are shown as solid circles and the size of each solid circle indicates the sample size of each study. Error bars are 95% confidence intervals.</p

Summary receiver operating characteristic curve for Ber-EP4 in the diagnosis of metastatic adenocarcinoma for all studies.

<p>Solid circles represent each study included in the meta-analysis. The size of each solid circle indicates the size of each study. The regression SROC curve summarizes the overall diagnostic accuracy.</p

Flow chart of selection process for eligible articles.

<p>Flow chart of selection process for eligible articles.</p

Funnel graph for the assessment of potential publication bias of the 29 included studies.

<p>The funnel graph plots the log of the diagnostic odds ratio (DOR) against the standard error of the log of the DOR (an indicator of sample size). Solid circles represent each study in the meta-analysis. The line indicates the regression line.</p

Summary of the studies included in the meta-analysis.

<p>TP, true positive; FP, false positive; FN, false negative; TN, true negative.</p><p>Summary of the studies included in the meta-analysis.</p

Applications and Challenges of Bacteriostatic Aptamers in the Treatment of Common Pathogenic Bacteria Infections

The continuous evolution and spread of common pathogenic bacteria is a major challenge in diagnosis and treatment with current biotechnology and modern molecular medicine. To confront this challenge, scientists urgently need to find alternatives for traditional antimicrobial agents. Various bacteriostatic aptamers obtained through SELEX screening are one of the most promising strategies. These bacteriostatic aptamers can reduce bacterial infection by blocking bacterial toxin infiltration, inhibiting biofilm formation, preventing bacterial invasion of immune cells, interfering with essential biochemical processes, and other mechanisms. In addition, aptamers may also help enhance the function of other antibacterial materials/drugs when used in combination. This paper has reviewed the bacteriostatic aptamers in the treatment of common pathogenic bacteria infections. For this aspect, first, bacteriostatic aptamers and their screening strategies are summarized. Then, the effect of molecular tailoring and modification on the performance of the bacteriostatic aptamer is analyzed, and the antibacterial mechanism and antibacterial strategy based on aptamers are introduced. Finally, the key technical challenges and their development prospects in clinical treatment are also carefully discussed