Aspects Associated with Nesting Ecology of Indian Blackbird (Turdus merula kinnisii) in Tropical Montane Cloud Forests of Horton Plains National Park of Sri Lanka

Breeding ecology of Indian Blackbird (Turdus merula kinnisii) was studied at the tropical montane cloud forests of Horton Plains National Park, situated in the highland plateau of the central highlands, from September 2015 to August 2018 within three consecutive days per month. This sub species is endemic to montane forests of Sri Lanka. There are two breeding seasons from March to April and August to September. There was a research gap about the breeding ecology of Blackbird in Sri Lanka. The objective was to conduct a detailed study about breeding ecology. Three habitats were selected within HPNP as cloud forest, cloud forest die-back and grassland habitat. Nests were located by following individuals and searching the vegetation. The location of the nests were marked by a GPS (Garmin eTrex 10). Tree species, nest height, diameter at breast height (DBH) was measured after the birds leaving the nest. Nest concealment, distance from the nest tree to the adjacent tree, nearest road or walking path and water source, was measured. Disturbances for the nests were observed and recorded. Nests accessible from the ground were only taken for inner nest parameters. In this study 30 nests were observed. Most of the nests were located at cloud forest habitat (n=26).They preferred seven plant species to construct their nests. Neolitsea fuscata was their major nesting plant. The nest height was 3.87±1.42 m and the nesting tree height was 7.01±1.71 m. The nests were located in the middle of the trees (relative height=0.56±0.18). Nest concealment was 14.33±4.30%. They highly preferred medium sized trees which were situated at shady habitats near water sources. The nest was a densely built cup with a volume of 936.4±157.5 cm3. Sometimes there were dummy nests around the original nest to protect from predator attacks. They spent 7 to 9 days to complete the nest. The incubation ranged from 16 to 18 days. Nestling period ranged from 13 to 15 days. The adults considered sole care of the young until it become an adult. Nesting success was 73%. Corvus splendens was recorded as the major predator. Present study reveals that cloud forest habitat as the most suitable habitat to construct the nests of Blackbird. Hence, the protection of cloud forest habitat is the assurance of their future generations.Keywords: Indian blackbird (Turdus merula kinnisii), Endemic subspecies, Tropical montane cloud forests, Horton Plains National Park, Breeding ecolog

Availability of Tree Cavities for Avian Cavity Nesters in Tropical Montane Cloud Forests at Horton Plains

Tree cavities play a critical role in the life history of cavity-using species and thus are an important structural feature of forests. This is the first study to address cavity resources in tropical montane cloud forests in Sri Lanka. Therefore, nest-site availability of cavity nesting bird species was studied at the Montane Cloud Forests of Horton Plains, situated in the highland plateau of the Nuwara Eliya district. Study was conducted from September 2016 to May 2018. Two habitats were selected as Cloud Forest (CF) and Cloud Forest Die-back (CFD). Line transect method was used. All cavities were recorded and locations were marked using GPS device. Cavity nests were located by searching the vegetation along transects. Tree species, nest cavity height, diameter at breast height (DBH) were measured. Greater flameback (Chrysocolaptes iucidus), Red-backed wood peacker (Dinopium benghalense psarodes) and Lesser yellownape (Celeus brachyurus jerdonii), provided different sizes of nest cavities for a suite of non-excavator species like Dull-blue flycatcher (Eumyias sordidus), Velvet-fronted nuthatch (Sitta frontalis), Sri Lanka yellow-fronted barbet (Megalaima flavifrons). Total of 654 tree cavities were located. Live trees and snags with DBH>45 cm were favored as nest sites by all species. This study indicates that cavities are an uncommon feature even in pristine habitats with only 4.5% of the trees harboring cavities in both habitat types. Even more uncommon are potentially usable cavities for avian cavity nesters. Only 2.98% of the trees have a potentially usable cavity in the CF and only 1.42% in the CFD. In CFD there is a significantly lower density of potentially usable cavities (2.8 cavities/ha in CF and 1.1 cavities/ha in CFD). More specifically, in the CFD, large, decaying Rhododendron arboreum have a relatively greater probability of having potentially usable cavities, while in the cloud forest potentially usable cavities are disproportionably found in large, decaying Cinnamomum ovalifolium. Neolitsea fuscata, Glochidion pycnocarpum were the other possible species with cavities. In both habitats, snags are also very likely to harbor a potentially usable cavity. In order for habitats of the montane region and some of their ecological value, it is necessary to protect the trees with highest probability of becoming usable cavity trees. CFD habitats were much more extensive than CF habitats, but birds strongly preferred CF as nesting habitats, presumably due to the availability of nesting sites. Since the cloud forests of Sri Lanka are under various threats and specifically since the cloud forest of the Horton Plains are susceptible to forest die back every action should be taken to preserve the cloud forests as they present the last habitat for most montane avifauna throughout the island.Keywords: Tropical Montane Cloud Forests, Cavity nesters, Nest site availability, Horton Plains, Sri Lank

Epidemiology, Clinical Manifestations, and Long-Term Outcomes of a Major Outbreak of Chikungunya in a Hamlet in Sri Lanka, in 2007: A Longitudinal Cohort Study

Chikungunya outbreaks occurred in the central province, Sri Lanka in 2006. This community-based study reports the epidemiology and the natural history of the infection from an affected village. Of the 199 families and 1001 individuals in the village, 159 (80%) and 513 (51%) were affected, respectively, comprising 237 (46%) males with peak incidence at 40–50 years. The acute illness caused polyarthritis in 233 (46%), and of them 230 (98%) progressed to chronic arthritic disability (CAD). Of the CAD patients, 102 (44%) had recovered in 141 days (range 30–210 days) from the disability state whilst 128 (56%) had persisting disability which lasted 12, 24, and 36 months in 41 (17.8%), 22 (9.5%), and 14 (6.1%) individuals, respectively. Carpal tunnel syndrome (CTS) manifested in 110 (21%). Females showed preponderance for complications over males: acute arthritis 147 versus 86, P = 0.001; CAD 136 versus 84, P = 0.029; CTS 88 versus 22, P = 0.001; relapses 105 versus 68, P = 0.001. Chikungunya was highly communicable and caused lasting crippling complications

Gas Phase Thermal Oxidation of Endosulfan and Formation of Polychlorinated Dibenzo‑<i>p</i>‑dioxins and Dibenzofurans

This paper investigates the thermal decomposition of technical endosulfan under oxidative conditions and the subsequent formation of polychlorinated dibenzo-<i>p</i>-dioxins, polychlorinated dibenzofurans (PCDD/F, dioxins), and their precursors. Both quantum chemical calculations and laboratory experiments were employed to investigate the pathways of oxidation of endosulfan. The laboratory scale apparatus used consists of a tubular reactor and product collection system and analysis train. The results report the effect of temperature (523–923 K) and O₂ concentration on PCDD/F formation in a N₂ bath gas at a residence time of 5 s. The decomposition of endosulfan produces two types of PCDD/F precursors, involving all chlorinated benzenes (CBz) and chlorinated phenols (CPh). Oxidation of endosulfan favors the formation of PCDF over PCDD. Octachlorodibenzofuran is the most abundant homologue group detected in all experiments. The maximum emission factor for PCDD/F was observed at 923 K and O₂ content of 6% and corresponds to 64 ng TEQ-WHO2005 per mg of endosulfan and a total dioxin concentration of 1131 ng/mg of endosulfan