39 research outputs found
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Safe handling and movement of cocoa germplasm for breeding
Cocoa (Theobroma cacao L.) originated in South America, but is now cultivated in various parts of the tropics. Movement of cocoa germplasm is often required in breeding programmes to increase the genetic diversity pool or to test clones/progeny in the field. However, such movement brings with it the risks of spread of pests and diseases, many of which are confined to particular geographical locations. Thus, it is critical that movement of germplasm is conducted within a quarantine framework. This chapter reviews the risks associated with the movement of cocoa germplasm. It considers international governance of plant movement and discusses the International Cocoa Quarantine Centre at the University of Reading (ICQC,R) as a hub for safe handling and movement of cocoa germplasm
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Analysis of physiological data from the International Clonal Trial (CFC)
A range of physiological parameters (canopy light transmission, canopy shape, leaf size, flowering and flushing intensity) were measured from the International Clone Trial, typically over the course of two years. Data were collected from six locations, these being: Brazil, Ecuador, Trinidad, Venezuela, Côte d’Ivoire and Ghana. Canopy shape varied significantly between clones, although it showed little variation between locations. Genotypic variation in leaf size was differentially affected by the growth location; such differences appeared to underlie a genotype by environment interaction in relation to canopy light transmission. Flushing data were recorded at monthly intervals over the course of a year. Within each location, a significant interaction was observed between genotype and time of year, suggesting that some genotypes respond to a greater extent than others to environmental stimuli. A similar interaction was observed for flowering data, where significant correlations were found between flowering intensity and temperature in Brazil and flowering intensity and rainfall in Côte d’Ivoire. The results demonstrate the need for local evaluation of cocoa clones and also suggest that the management practices for particular planting material may need to be fine-tuned to the location in which they are cultivated
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Farmers’ perceptions of the effectiveness of the Cocoa Disease and Pest Control Programme (CODAPEC) in Ghana and its effects on poverty reduction
The study examined the contribution of the Cocoa Disease and Pest Control Programme (CODAPEC), which is a cocoa production-enhancing government policy, to reducing poverty and raising the living standards of cocoa farmers in Ghana. One hundred and fifty (150) cocoa farmers were randomly selected from five communities in the Bibiani-Anhwiaso-Bekwai district of the Western Region of Ghana and interviewed using structured questionnaires. Just over half of the farmers (53%) perceived the CODAPEC programme as being effective in controlling pests and diseases, whilst 56.6% felt that their yields and hence livelihoods had improved. In some cases pesticides or fungicides were applied later in the season than recommended and this had a detrimental effect on yields. To determine the level of poverty amongst farmers, annual household consumption expenditure was used as a proxy indicator. The study found that 4.7% of cocoa farmers were extremely poor having a total annual household consumption expenditure of less than GH¢ 623.10 (398.81). An amount of money ranging from GH¢ 20.00 (44.29) per annum was needed to lift the 4.7% of cocoa farmers out of extreme poverty, which could be achieved through modest increases in productivity. The study highlighted how agricultural intervention programmes, such as CODAPEC, have the potential to contribute to improved farmer livelihoods
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Photosynthetic activity and early growth of four Cacao genotypes as influenced by different shade regimes under West African dry and wet season conditions
The physiological performance of four cacao clones was examined under three artificial shade regimes over the course of a year in Ghana. Plants under light shade had significantly higher photosynthetic rates in the rainy seasons whereas in the dry season there was a trend of higher photosynthetic rates under heavy shade. The results imply that during the wet seasons light was the main limiting factor to photosynthesis whereas in the dry season vapour pressure deficit was the major factor limiting photosynthesis through stomatal regulation. Leaf area was generally lower under heavier shade but the difference between shade treatments varied between clones. Such differences in leaf area allocation appeared to underlie genotypic differences in final biomass production in response to shade. The results suggest that shade for young cacao should be provided based on the current ambient environment and genotype
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Technical guidelines for the safe movement of cacao germplasm
These guidelines describe technical procedures that minimize the risk of pest introductions with movement of cacao germplasm for research, crop improvement, plant breeding, exploration or conservation. The recommendations made in these guidelines are intended for small, specialized consignments used in research programmes, e.g. for collection, conservation and utilization for breeding of plant genetic resources.
These guidelines are not meant for trade and commercial consignments concerning export and import of germplasm or cocoa beans. The conservation and utilization of plant genetic resources and their global distribution are essential components of research activities underpinning improvement programmes. Inevitably, the movement of germplasm involves a risk of accidentally introducing pests along with the host plant. To minimize such risks, preventive measures and effective testing procedures are required to ensure that distributed material is free of pests of potential phytosanitary importance.
The international, and inter-regional, movement of germplasm for research, conservation and breeding requires complete and up to date information concerning the phytosanitary status of the plant germplasm. Relevant and current national regulatory information governing the export and importation of plant germplasm in countries is essential. This revision has been produced by the Safe Movement Working Group of CacaoNet. These reflect the consensus and knowledge of the specialists who have contributed to this revision but the information provided needs to be regularly updated. These CacaoNet Guidelines were first published on-line in 2012 but have been revised in 2014 and in 2017 to take account of new information received
Technical Guidelines for the Safe Movement of Cacao Germplasm. Revised from the FAO/IPGRI Technical Guidelines No. 20 (Fourth Update 2021)
The CacaoNet Technical Guidelines for the Safe Movement of Cacao Germplasm provide updated information on the precautions and quarantine measures that can be taken to minimise the risk of spread of pests and diseases when cacao genetic resources are being moved for research, crop improvement, plant breeding, exploration or conservation. These Guidelines are based on those last published by FAO/IPGRI in 1999 but have been revised and expanded by a group of experts set up within CacaoNet (the Global Cacao Genetic Resources Network coordinated by Bioversity International), to take account of new knowledge of the pests and diseases, including their current distribution, and advances in detection techniques. These CacaoNet Guidelines were first published on-line in 2012 but have been revised in 2014, in 2017 and now in 2021 to take account of new information received.
The document includes general advice regarding safe procedures to use when moving cacao germplasm, whether as seed, vegetative and tissue cultured materials, and summarised information on the geographical spread and risks posed by significant pests and diseases of cacao. In addition, experts have contributed sections giving detailed information on the following: Virus diseases (Cacao necrosis virus, Cacao swollen shoot virus (CSSV), Cacao Yellow mosaic virus), Fungal diseases (Witches’ broom disease, Moniliophthora pod rot, Phytophthora pod rot, Vascular streak die-back, Verticillium wilt, Ceratocystis wilt, Rosellinia root rot), Insect pests (Cocoa pod borer, mirids/capsids, mosquito bug, other insect pests) and nematodes. Each section contains information on physical symptoms, geographical distribution, biology of the pest or disease and recommended quarantine measures.
The publication of these Guidelines has been supported by financial and in-kind contributions from Bioversity International, the CGIAR Research Programme on Forests, Trees and Agroforestry, the Cocoa Research Association Ltd., UK (CRA Ltd., a UK-based organization managing scientific cocoa research on behalf of Mars Mondelēz International and the London Cocoa Trade NYSE-Liffe) and the University of Reading. CacaoNet has received additional financial support from Mars, the U.S. Department of Agriculture, Agricultural Research Service (USDA/ARS) and the World Cocoa Foundation (WCF)
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Knowledge and perception of Ghanaian cocoa farmers on mirid control and their willingness to use forecasting systems
Annual losses of cocoa in Ghana to mirids are significant. Therefore, accurate timing of insecticide application is critical to enhance yields. However, cocoa farmers often lack information on the expected mirid population for each season to enable them to optimise pesticide use. This study assessed farmers’ knowledge and perceptions of mirid control and their willingness to use forecasting systems informing them of expected mirid peaks and time of application of pesticides. A total of 280 farmers were interviewed in the Eastern and Ashanti regions of Ghana with a structured open and closed ended questionnaire. Most farmers (87%) considered mirids as the most important insect pest on cocoa with 47% of them attributing 30-40% annual crop loss to mirid damage. There was wide variation in the timing of insecticide application as a result of farmers using different sources of information to guide the start of application. The majority of farmers (56%) do not have access to information on the type, frequency and timing of insecticides to use. However, respondents who are members of farmer groups had better access to such information. Extension officers were the preferred channel for information transfer to farmers with 72% of farmers preferring them to other available methods of communication. Almost all the respondents (99%) saw the need for a comprehensive forecasting system to help farmers manage cocoa mirids. The importance of accurate timing for mirid control based on forecasted information to farmer groups and extension officers was discussed